Chapter 8
Emotion and Motivation
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ISBN: 0-131-73180-7
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
What Is Emotion?
Emotion –
A four-part process consisting of
physiological arousal, cognitive
interpretation, subjective feelings, and
behavioral expression
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What Do Our Emotions
Do For Us?
Emotions have evolved to
help us respond to important
situations and to convey our
intentions to others
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The Evolution of Emotions
Emotions have survival value and have
been shaped by natural selection
Individuals vary tremendously in emotional
responsiveness
Emotions are not entirely programmed by
genetics
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Cultural Universals in Emotional
Expression
People everywhere can recognize at least
seven basic emotions: sadness, fear,
anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and
surprise
There are, however, huge cultural
differences in the context and intensity of
emotional displays
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Cultural Universals in Emotional
Expression
Display rules –
Permissible ways of displaying emotions
in a particular society
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The Emotion Wheel
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Where Do Our Emotions
Come From?
The discovery of two distinct
brain pathways for emotional
arousal has clarified the
connections among the many
biological structures involved
in emotion and has offered
solutions to many of the longstanding issues in the
psychology of emotion
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The Neuroscience of Emotion
The biological mechanisms at work behind
our emotions include:
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The limbic system
The reticular formation
The cerebral cortex
The autonomic nervous system
Hormones
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Psychological Theories of Emotion
James-Lange theory–
An emotion-provoking stimulus produces
a physical response that, in turn,
produces an emotion
Cannon-Bard theory –
An emotional feeling and an internal
physiological response occur at the same
time
• One is not the cause of the other
• Both the result of a cognitive appraisal of
the situation
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Psychological Theories of Emotion
Two-factor theory of emotion –
Emotion results from the cognitive
appraisal of both (1) physical arousal and
(2) emotion provoking stimulus
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JamesLange
theory
CannonBard
theory
Twofactor
theory
Stimulus
snake
Stimulus
snake
Stimulus
Physiological arousal
trembling
increased heart rate
Emotion
fear
Physiological arousal
trembling
increased heart rate
Emotion
fear
Physiological arousal
trembling
increased heart rate
Cognitive interpretation
“I feel afraid!”
Emotion
fear
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Psychological Theories of Emotion
Cognitive appraisal theory –
Theory that individuals decide on an
appropriate emotion following the event
Opponent-process theory –
Theory that emotions have pairs; when
one is triggered the other is suppressed
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Arousal, Performance, and the
Inverted “U”
Inverted “U” function –
Describes the relationship between
arousal and performance; both low and
high levels of arousal produce lower
performance than does a moderate level
of arousal
High
Performance
Low
Low
High
Arousal Level
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Arousal, Performance, and the
Inverted “U”
Sensation seekers –
Individuals who have a biological need
for higher levels of stimulation than do
other people
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How Much Control Do We
Have Over Our Emotions?
Although emotional
responses are not always
consciously regulated, we
can learn to control them
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Developing Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence –
Ability to understand and control
emotional responses
Emotional control can be achieved by
learning
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Detecting Deception
People can also control their emotions to
deceive
Do “lie detectors” really work?
Polygraph –
Device that records the graphs of many
measures of physical arousal; often
called a “lie detector” really an arousal
detector
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Motivation: What Makes Us
Act as We Do?
Motivation takes many
forms, but all involve inferred
mental processes that select
and direct our behavior
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Motivation: What Makes Us
Act as We Do?
Motivation –
All processes involved in starting,
directing, and maintaining physical and
psychological activities
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How Psychologists Use the Concept
of Motivation
Motivation
• Connects observable behavior to internal
states
• Accounts for variability in behavior
• Explains perseverance despite adversity
• Relates biology to behavior
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Types of Motivation
Drive –
Biologically instigated motivation
Motive –
Internal mechanism that directs behavior
(often used to describe motivations that
are learned, rather than biologically
based)
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Types of Motivation
Intrinsic motivation –
Desire to engage in an activity for
its own sake
Extrinsic motivation –
Desire to engage in an activity to
achieve an external consequence
(e.g. a reward)
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Achievement Motivation
What motivates us to work?
(School, job, sports, video games, relationships etc..)
Intrinsic Motivators
Extrinsic Motivators
Rewards we get internally,
such as enjoyment or
satisfaction.
Reward that we get for
accomplishments from
outside ourselves (grades or
money or etc..)
Work great in the short run.
Types of Motivation
Conscious motivation –
Having the desire to engage in an
activity and being aware of the
desire
Unconscious motivation –
Having a desire to engage in an
activity but being consciously
unaware of the desire
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Theories of Motivation
Instinct theory –
View that certain behaviors are
determined by innate factors
Fixed-action patterns –
Genetically based behaviors, seen across a
species, that can be set off by a specific
stimulus
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Theories of Motivation
Drive theory –
View that a biological need (an
imbalance that threatens survival)
produces drive
Homeostasis –
The body’s tendency to maintain a
biologically balanced condition
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Theories of Motivation
Locus of control –
An individual’s sense of where his or her
life influences originate–internally or
externally
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Maslow’s Humanistic Theory
Hierarchy of needs –
The notion that needs
occur in priority order,
with the biological
needs as the most
basic
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Management Theory
Management/Teaching styles relate closely to
Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators.
Theory X
Managers believes that
employees will work only if
rewarded with benefits or
threatened with punishment.
Think employees are
Extrinsically Motivated.
Only interested in Maslow’s
lower needs.
Theory Y
Managers believe that
employees are internally
motivated to do good work and
policies should encourage this
internal motive.
Interested in Maslow’s higher
needs.
Rewards Can Sometimes Squelch
Motivation
Overjustification –
The process by which extrinsic rewards
can sometimes displace internal
motivation, as when a child receives
money for playing video games
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How Are Achievement,
Hunger, and Sex Alike?
Different?
No single theory accounts
for all forms of motivation,
because each motive
involves its own mix of
biological, mental,
behavioral, and
social/cultural influences
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Measuring the Need for Achievement
Projection –
Process by which people attribute their
own unconscious motives to other people
or objects
Need for achievement (n Ach) –
Mental state that produces a
psychological motive to excel or reach
some goal
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A Cross-Cultural Perspective on
Achievement
Individualism –
View that places a high value on
individual achievement and distinction
Collectivism –
View that values group loyalty and pride
over individual distinction
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Hunger Motivation
The multiple-systems approach to hunger
Set point –
Refers to the tendency of the body to
maintain a certain level of body fat and body
weight
Weight control is a complex
issue with no simple answers
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Biological Basis of Hunger
Hunger does NOT
come from our
stomach.
It comes from our…
Brain
What part of the
brain?
The Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Lateral Hypothalamus
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
When stimulated it makes
you hungry.
When stimulated you feel
full.
When lesioned (destroyed)
you will never be hungry
again.
When lesioned you will
never feel full again.
Thirst and Pain
Volumetric thirst –
A drop in extracellular fluid levels
Osmotic thirst –
A drop in intracellular fluid levels
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Sexual Motivation
Sex is natural.
Without sex, none of
us would be here.
How do scientists (or
you) find out about
sex?
YOU ASK!!!!!!
The Scientific Study of Sexuality
Kinsey interviewed 18,000 Americans
concerning their sexual behavior
Masters and Johnson
Sexual response cycle –
Four-stage sequence of arousal, plateau,
orgasm, and resolution occurring in both
men and women
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Kinsey’s Studies
•Confidential interviews with
18,000 people (in early
1950’s).
•Sexual Behavior in the
Human Male and Sexual
Behavior in the Human
Female
•Scale of sexuality….0 to 6
where 0 is exclusively
heterosexual and 6
homosexual and 7 is
asexual.
Click on Kinsey to see the movie
trailer.
Masters and Johnson Study
Click on Masters and Johnson to see a more detailed explanation of
their research.
In the 1960’s William
Masters and Virginia
Johnson set out to explore
the physiology of sex.
382 females and 312 males.
After their
research was
done they ran
an institute
that claimed
to turn
homosexual
people
straight.
Phases of Human Sexual
Response
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Sexual Motivation
Virtually any stimulus that becomes
associated with genital touch and orgasm
can become a conditioned stimulus that
motivates sexual activity
Sexual scripts –
Socially learned ways of responding in
sexual situations
Both learning and genetics affect our
sexual behaviors
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We have discussed the energizing of sexual
motivation but have yet to discuss its
direction:
Sexual Orientation
An enduring sexual attraction toward members of
either one's own gender or the other gender.
How is Sexual Orientation Determined
There has been NO
evidence that sexuality is
socially determined.
Kids raised by homosexual
parents are no more likely
to be homosexual that if
they were raised by
heterosexual parents.
Thus it is likely biologically
determined.
Motives in Conflict
Approach-approach conflict –
A conflict in which one must choose
between two equally attractive options
Approach-avoidance conflict –
A conflict in which there are both
appealing and negative aspects to the
decision to be made
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Motives in Conflict
Avoidance-avoidance conflict –
A conflict in which one must choose
between two equally unattractive options
Multiple approach-avoidance conflict –
A conflict in which one must choose
between options that have both many
attractive and many negative aspects
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How and Why Do We
Experience Stress?
The human stress response
to perceived threat activates
thoughts, feelings, behaviors,
and physiological arousal
that normally promote
adaptation and survival
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Stress and Stressors
Stress –
A physical and mental response to a
challenging or threatening situation
Stressor –
a stressful stimulus, a condition
demanding adaptation
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A Model of Stress
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Traumatic Stressors
Traumatic stressor –
a situation that threatens one’s physical
safety, arousing feelings of fear, horror,
or helplessness
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Catastrophe
Cohen and Ahearn identified five stages
that occur in the wake of natural
disasters
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Psychic numbness
Automatic action
Communal effort
Letdown
Recovery
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Posttraumatic Stress
Posttraumatic stress disorder –
delayed stress reaction in which an
individual involuntarily re-experiences
emotional, cognitive, and behavioral
aspects of past trauma
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The Physical Stress Response
Acute stress –
A temporary pattern of arousal caused by
a stressor with a clear onset and offset
Chronic stress –
A continuous state of stressful arousal
persisting over time
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The Physical Stress Response
Fight-or-flight response –
A sequence of internal processes that
prepares the organism for struggle or
escape
Tend-and-befriend model –
stress response model proposing that
females are biologically predisposed to
respond to stress by nurturing and
protecting offspring and seeking social
support
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The Physical Stress Response
General adaptation syndrome (GAS) –
A pattern of general physical responses
that takes essentially the same form in
responding to any serious chronic
stressor
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The General Adaptation Syndrome
Alarm
reaction
Resistance
– the body
– the body seems to adapt
mobilizes it’s
to the
resources to
presence of
cope with a
the stressor
stressor
Level of
normal resistance
Alarm Reaction
Exhaustion
– the body
depletes it’s
resources
Successful Resistance
Illness/death
Resistance
Exhaustion
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Stress and the Immune System
Immune system –
bodily organs and responses that protect
the body from foreign substances and
threats
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Stress and the Immune System
Psychoneuroimmunology –
Multidisciplinary field that studies the
influence of mental states on the immune
system
Cytokines –
Hormone-like chemicals facilitating
communication between brain and
immune system
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Personality and Stress
Type A –
behavior pattern characterized by
intense, angry, competitive, or
perfectionistic responses to challenging
situations
Type B –
behavior pattern characterized
by a relaxed, unstressed
approach to life
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Psychological Responses to Stress
Learned helplessness –
Pattern of not responding to noxious
stimuli after an organism learns that its
behavior has no effect
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Psychological Responses to Stress
Resilience –
Capacity to adapt, achieve well-being,
and cope with stress, in spite of serious
threats to development
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Motivating Yourself
Flow –
An intense focus on an activity,
accompanied by increased creativity and
near-ecstatic feelings
Involves intrinsic motivation
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End of Chapter 8
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007