Ch. 1 – Studying Gender: An
Overview
Robert Wonser
Sex and Gender
• Not the same thing!
• Sex (i.e. maleness or femaleness) is a
biological given, physical distinctions used
as the basis for constructing a social
category called,
• Gender (i.e. masculinity or femininity) – a
social construct, expected behavior
because one is male or female
Gender Stereotypes
• Stereotypes are oversimplified summary
description of a group of people
• Gender Stereotypes are simplistic
descriptions of supposedly ‘masculine
male’ or ‘feminine female’
• Most people view them as bipolar,
either/or. That is, a masculine male lacks
any feminine traits and a feminine female
lacks any masculine traits
• Does this apply to you? Is this realistic?
Gender System
• Sex/gender system
• The institutionalized patterns of
sex/gender differentiation
• These prescriptions are embedded in the
institutions of society—in the economy,
political system, educational system,
religions, family forms and so on
• The consequences of this system are the
focus of this class
• Sex/gender systems vary historically and
cross-culturally on these three interrelated
components:
1) the social construction of gender
categories on the basis of biological sex;
2) a sexual division of labor in which
specific tasks are allocated on the basis of
sex;
3) the social regulation of sexuality, in
which particular forms of sexual
expression are positively or negatively
sanctioned
Social Stratification
• Men and women and the traits associated with
are unequally valued in a society.
• We live in a patriarchal society.
• Patriarchy is a sex/gender system in which men
dominate women, and what is considered
masculine is more highly valued than what is
considered feminine.
• Not universal and does not benefit all groups of
men equally, just as it disadvantages some
women more than others
Sociological Perspectives on
Gender
• Sociology – the scientific study of human
societies and cultures and of social behavior.
• Not all sociologists view issues the same way and
gender is no exception
• Scientists, including sociologists, conduct their
research within the framework of a particular
paradigm
• A paradigm is a school of thought that guides the
scientist in the choosing the problems to be
studied, in selecting the methods for studying
them, and in explaining what is found
• sociology is a multi-paradigm science
Sociological Perspectives on
Gender
• Structural Functionalism was dominant in sociology and the
study of gender from the 1940s – 1960s
• Structural functionalist paradigm depicts society as a
stable, orderly system in which the majority of members
share a common set of values, beliefs, and behavioral
expectations that may be referred to collectively as societal
consensus.
• The social system itself is composed of interrelated parts
that operate together to keep the society balanced, in
equilibrium.
• Each element in society functions to maintain social order
• Change comes about very slowly, in an evolutionary way.
• Rapid change - dysfunction
Functionalists
• Men and women are physically different
– Men – bigger and stronger
– Women – bear and nurse children
• These biological differences lead to
gender roles
• Gender roles – not unlike a theatrical role,
includes a set of behavioral requirements
expected of the person occupying the role
because of their sex
• The work women do in the home is
functional; it serves a purpose for society
• Women reproduce society
– Giving birth to new members
– Teaching/socializing them to accept the
culture’s agreed upon values and norms
– Providing men and children with affection and
physical sustenance
• Some functionalists devalue traditional
women’s work; referred to as a “duty” and
designating men as instrumental leaders
in their families
Evaluating Functionalism
• Major Theme: gender differences as
natural phenomena deriving from human
biology
• The problem is that this confuses sex and
gender and suggests immutability
• Gender is in fact variable; it changes
throughout time and culture
• Gender is a social creation, a reification,
not a biological given
Evaluating Functionalism
• Another consequence of depicting gender
differences as natural is that this has often been
used to justify inequality and discrimination on
the basis of sex.
• Even if biology is responsible for many of the
personality and behavior differences between
men and women, but that does not mean one
sex or gender is better than the other or that
members of one sex deserve a disproportionate
share of society’s resources
Evaluating Functionalism
• Major theme: the conception of gender in terms of roles
– “The notion of “role” focuses more attention on individuals than on
social structure, and implies that “the female role” and “the male role”
are complementary (i.e. separate or different, but equal). The terms
are depoliticizing; they strip experience from its historical and
political context and neglect questions of power and conflict. It is
significant that sociologists do not speak of “class roles” or “race
roles.”” Stacy and Thorne (1985; 307)
• Power is the ability to impose one’s will upon others despite
resistance.
• How does the notion of power relate to social change?
• It implies that the solution to gender inequality is simply
teaching people new roles when in fact far reaching and
effective social change requires a fundamental restructuring
of society’s basic resources.
• A major weakness: is its defense of the status quo
A Paradigm Revolution
• When paradigms can no longer explain
social conditions or problems without
being revised in some fundamental way a
paradigm revolution is likely.
• One paradigm is better suited than
another for explaining current conditions
• Functionalism was eclipsed by another
paradigm, feminist paradigm.
A Feminist Sociology of Gender
• There is no one feminism but rather a “plurality of
feminisms”
• The feminist paradigm acknowledges the importance of
both nature and learning in the acquisition of gender. It
is impossible to separate the precise influence of biology
as the learning process begins immediately after birth.
Genes code for a specific range of forms that take shape
under various environmental conditions.
• Basic assumption: gender is essentially socially created,
rather than innately determined.
• It is learned behavior through the process of social
learning with what we actually learn being a social
product that is generated within the context of a
particular political and economic structure.
Sexism
• Sexism is the differential valuing of one sex, usually
men, over the other.
• Sexism is sociology
• 1) most sociological studies were conducted by men,
using male subjects, although the findings were
generalized to all people.
• 2) Gender was considered an important category of
analysis only in a limited number of sociological
subfields, such as marriage and family, whereas in all
others, it was ignored
• 3) When women were studied, their behavior and
attitudes were analyzed in terms of a male standard of
normalcy or rightness.
• “Most of what we have known as the study of society was the study
of male society.”
• Gender is a fundamental consideration for feminists; it influences
social relations
• Goal is to create a holistic view of how women and men because of
different locations within the social structure, encounter different
opportunities and constraints.
• Social arrangements lead to different experiences and life chances
for men and women
• Feminist- reject the traditional model of science “As establishing
mastery over subjects, and demanding the absence f feeling, and as
enforcing separateness of the knower from the known, all under the
guise of ‘objectivity.’”
• Instead they adopt an empathetic stance toward their research
subjects.
Feminism and Social Movements
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Does feminism only apply to “women’s issues”?
Traditional focus has been on women’s issues – why?
Does not ignore masculinities
 although virtually all men benefit from the institutionalized patriarchal privilege not
all men actually have power in our society.
The consequences of feminism are also not the same for everyone. Who benefits
and how?
Feminist sociologists are advocates of social change  seek to develop effective
means to eradicate gender inequality and to change those aspects of our social
constructions of gender that are harmful or destructive.
How to affect change?  create a group consciousness people must begin to see
that their problems are not personal ones, but rather are shared by others like them.
Group consciousness  collective action
Social movement – a group that has organized to promote a particular cause
through collective action
The collective work of feminists and feminist research has spurred many to work for
social change, these collective efforts known as the feminist movement or the
women’s movement
Feminism in Historical Perspective
• The First Wave (1830-1920)
• Early Feminists included: Elizabeth Blackwell, Charlotte Perkins
Gilman, Margaret Sanger, Maria W. Stewart, Sojourner Truth,
Frances Willard, and Victoria Clafflin Woodhull
• Feminism was mostly associated with the suffragists in the context
of the 19th century because of the struggle for the right to vote for
women.
• But, early feminism, like contemporary feminism, was far more
diverse than has been depicted in traditional historical accounts.
• Early resistance to gender inequality can be traced back to the
Middle Ages, but since women’s accounts were not included in
official history most didn’t know others felt the same way and thus a
movement was inhibited.
• Seneca Falls convention in New York in 1848.
The 2nd Wave
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1963 Betty Friedan’s book The Feminine Mystique  voiced the unhappiness and
boredom of White, middle-class, educated housewives.
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Sexual politics – the examination of gender inequality as rooted not only in the
public sphere, but also “in the ‘privacy’ of our kitchens and bedrooms,” in the intimate
relationships between women and men.
1966 – National Organization for Women (NOW)
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Suburban homes – “comfortable concentration camps”  stunted personal growth
After subordinating their own needs to those of their children and husbands they were left
profoundly empty rather than fulfilled  “The problem that has no name”
This book illustrated that it is not a personal problem but a social problem 
Founded by Betty Friedan and 27 others who were representing state women’s commissions
at a national assembly in Washington.
Also more radical women’s groups were emerging at this time
Origins in the political left and centered on college campuses.
Struck by the glaring contradiction between radical men in the movement and the
professed equality but sexist treatment towards women within the movement.
This movement also crystallized lesbian movements while simultaneously causing a
rift in the feminist movement because of the lesbian focus critical of heterosexual
relations.
Again, the 2nd wave was far from homogenous
Men and Liberation
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Traditional masculinity is harmful to men also.
– Ex: higher rates of heart disease are linked with traditional notions of masculinity.
The social category “man” is as diverse as “woman” is.
Although all men benefit to some degree from the “patriarchal dividend” the distribution
of societal resources varies among men according to their race and ethnicity, social
class, age, physical ability, and sexual orientation.
“Men’s liberation” has divided into two camps:
Male-identified and female-identified
Male-identified branch of the men’s rights movement is composed of men’s rights groups
who view male privilege as an illusion and it is women who ultimately are privileged.
Men are victims of women’s abuse; men are seduced by women then falsely accused of
rape, men are routinely denied custody of their children following a divorce. Men are
expected to be providers and protectors while women are exempted from military draft
and do not have to pay for drinks or meals when on dates.
This branch is clearly anti-feminist
The female-identified branch of the men’s movement is explicitly pro-feminist
– Argue that traditional masculinity is harmful, especially for working-class men and
men of color.
– Sexism is a system of male domination  it’s not enough to give women what men
have.
– Instead it’s necessary to reconstruct gender and gender relations in our society.
• To do this, men must engage in antisexist behavior.
Contemporary Feminisms
• According to Judith Lorber, 3 types: gender-reform,
gender-resistance and gender-rebellion
• gender-reform feminisms emphasize the similarities
rather than the differences between women and men.
– Goal: women to have the same opportunities as men to fully
participate in all aspects of social life, reflecting personal
choices, not society’s sexist dictates.
– Liberal – same legal rights as men enjoy for women
– Marxist – women’s oppression is caused by economic
dependence
– Socialist – and increasing employment opportunities for women
– Development – focuses on women in economically developing
countries, improving women’s educational and economic
opportunities, operating within constraints of traditional cultures.
Contemporary Feminisms
• Gender-resistance Feminisms argue that formal legal rights alone
cannot end gender inequality because male dominance is too
ingrained into everyday social relations including heterosexual
sexual relations.
• Encourage women to form women only organizations and
communities
• ‘resistant’ because separateness resists the gendered social order
but does nothing to change it.
• Includes:
– Radical and lesbian feminisms which focus on the sexual exploitation of
women by men (esp. men’s violence against women)
– Psychoanalytic feminism uses the ideas of Sigmund Freud to explain
gender inequality in terms of the sex differences in personality
development
– Standpoint feminism attempts to examine all aspects of life from a
woman’s unique standpoint.
Contemporary Feminism
• Gender-rebellion feminism (also called third wave
because of their departure from traditional feminism) that
focus on the interrelationships among the inequalities of
gender, race and ethnicity, social class and sexual
orientation, and analyze gender inequality as one piece of
a complex system of social stratification.
• Includes:
– Multiracial feminism and Men’s feminism both highlight how one’s
various social locations within the stratification hierarchy privilege
or disadvantage groups of women or men in different ways.
– Social construction feminism examines the ways people construct
identities and labels through their everyday interactions with one
another.
– Postmodern feminism and Queer theory conceptualize sex and
gender as social scripts and then rewrite the parts and alter the
props as they see fit for specific situations; gender is fluid.
The Future of Feminism: Young
Women and Women of Color
• Media reports indicate feminism is dead,
why?
• Feminist and feminism have become dirty
words, why?
• Although young women today believe that
women’s plights have improved over the
last 25 years they are reluctant to label
themselves feminists, why?
The Perspective of this Text
• Feminist
• Also important: Symbolic Interactionist
perspective and the ‘doing gender’ take