Rationalising Leisure
McDonaldization and Technology
The de-humanising outcome of automation
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Rationalization
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Rationalization (a modernist process):
 Made famous by the work of Max Weber
 A far reaching process where traditional modes of thinking are replaced by an
ends/means analysis concerned with efficiency and formalized social control
 Society dominated by purely instrumental social relationships : continuum
from emotional - traditional - rational action
Bureaucracy:
 A large formal organization characterized by a hierarchical authority structure,
well established division of labour, written rules and regulations,
impersonality and a concern for technical competence
 Structure imposed on human interaction and thinking furthers process of
rationalization
 Produces de-humanising consequences as individuals are trapped in an ‘iron
cage’
Rationalization processes affect ‘leisure’ and not only work
Ritzer’s thesis
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“McDonaldization” (Ritzer, 1993; 1998; 2004):
 “is the process by which the principles of the
fast food restaurant are coming to dominate
more and more sectors of American society as
well as the rest of the world” (Ritzer, 1993)
 Organizing force representing and extending
rationalization into everyday life and
interaction, facilitated by, and driving
technology
 Evidences the proliferation of non-human
technologies into the realms of production and
consumption on a global scale
 Continuing debate as to the social impact of
McDonaldization processes
Efficiency
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Technological ‘efficiency’: a ‘near universal desire’ (Weber, 1991)
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Technologies often the most attractive means to reach a specific end rapidly, with
least amount of effort, reflecting the general ‘speeding up’ of the pace of life and
desire for convenience
Both production and consumption experiences benefit from streamlining
processes (e.g. division of labour), replacing workers with non-human
technologies
Drew heavily on industrial predecessors (e.g. Taylor’s Scientific Mgt) but
revolutionizes our ‘means of consumption’ (Ritzer, 1999)
Requires ‘putting customers to work’ (e.g. supermarket scanners, Technogym
printouts)
Leisure examples:
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Vending machines, online ticket sales (cinema, football etc), electronic
queuing/parking systems, drive through restaurants, online travel
booking/shopping, exercise machines, credit cards, video/PPV, search engines,
email and virtual chat (e.g. MSN Messenger)
Calculability
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Technology facilitates ‘calculability’
 Involves an emphasis on things that can be calculated, counted
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and quantified (i.e. quantity over quality)
Emphasises ‘speed’ (Virilio, 1986) as an emblem of contemporary
western societies
The computer is central as it enables the calculation of vast
amounts of data quickly and accurately; facilitates the
computerization of society (Lyotard, 1994)
Technologies have helped quantify performance (e.g. sporting
feats) and capture ever more ‘experiences’ in as short a time as
possible (e.g. digital camera technology)
Leisure examples
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Sports statistics and ‘chatter’, TV (ratings over quality), fast-food
delivery
Predictability
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Predictability (Apollonian v Dionysian; red or blue pill)
 Attempts to structure our environment so that surprise and differentness do
not encroach upon our sensibilities
 Selling sameness, certainty and security: robotic routinisation
 Technologies promise predictable outcomes and a standardised quality again
and again…(e.g. kit houses, IKEAisation)
 Telemarketing extends processes of scripting and predictability
 Self-fulfilling, as consumer (and commercial) expectations reinforce the need
for predictability (e.g. television schedules)
 De-territorialisation of activities a response to predictability (e.g. climbing
walls)
 Service employees monitored to ensure predictable outcomes
Leisure examples:
 Sports grounds (predictable surface, weather, quality, experience?), indoor
facilities (e.g. The Adventure Centre, Wimbledon Roof), shopping malls, hotel
chains, amusement parks (Disney)
“antiseptic, climate-controlled, plastic world (s)” (Vertifeuille, 1994)
PREDICTABLE FUN/ANTI-LEISURE/LIVED LIVES?
Predictability
“What a wonderful world Truman Burbank inhabits – a town of
pretty houses and smiling people. On Seahaven Island, the
streets are spotless, the traffic is orderly, the weather glorious,
from seductive dawns (let’s get out of bed!) to sunsets worthy
of Turner’s brush” (Corliss, 1998)
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This Stepford Wives-type fable is eminently possible as
technological ‘advance’ permits us to eradicate imperfection
and difference: but do we want it?
Control by technologies
“replacement of human by non-human technology is often oriented
towards greater control. The great source of uncertainty and
unpredictability in a rationalizing system, are people - either the
people who work within those systems or the people who are
served by them” (Ritzer, 1994)
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Not a recent phenomenon. F.W. Taylor separated conception from execution, ‘head’
from ‘hand’
Control of employees/customers: rules, regulations, computers, surveillance.
‘systems’ encourage servitude
Man-machines (http://www.kraftwerk.com): pre-packaged, pre-measured, automatically
controlled: eradicating uncertainty:
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Removes ‘thinking human’/follow instructions (surrender authority)
Dependence upon/subordination to machine (de-skilling)
Controlling customers: routes, queues, directing behaviour
Leisure examples:
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Turnstiles, swipe cards, touch screen cash registers, automated customer service
Irrationalities
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Irrationality of rationality (5th dimension)
 Rational systems turning in on themselves; leading to irrational
outcomes (e.g. inefficiencies, unpredictabilities)
 “most specifically, irrationality means that rational systems are
unreasonable systems. By that I mean that they deny the basic
humanity, the human reason, of the people who work within, or
are served by them” (Ritzer, 1994)
 Loss of the self/agential action: de-humanisation and disenchantment
Leisure examples
 Long queues, less nourishing food causes health problems,
dependency on systems results in inability to be flexible,
innovative, autocash machines
OTHER IRRATIONAL OUTCOMES?
Re-enchanting a disenchanting world?
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Enchanting a disenchanting world
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Technological developments enable the ‘new means of
consumption’ take on an almost enchanted, religious quality
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we are ‘consumed by consumption’ (Ritzer, 1999: xi)
casinos, mega mall, theme park, themed restaurant
BUT they also act as highly effective rationalized selling
machines (e.g catering, merchandise, credit cards)
Apparently ‘de-McDonaldized’ settings actually act as a veneer
for extended McDonaldization (e.g postmodern ballpark/stadia)
BUT: McDonaldization can be positive and liberating
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travelling in unfamiliar countries we benefit from efficient, calculable,
predictable, controlled systems
extends consumer choice and thus freedom rather than illustrating
homogenization
Indicative References
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Ritzer, G (1993) The
McDonaldization of Society,
Pine Forge
Ritzer, G (1998) The
McDonaldization Thesis, Sage
Ritzer, G (1999) Enchanting a
Disenchanted World, Pine
Forge
Ritzer, G (2004) The
McDonaldization of Society:
Revised New Century Edition,
Pine Forge
Bryman, A (2004) The
Disneyization of Society, Sage
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Weber, M (1991) From Max Weber:
Essays in Sociology, Routledge
Gabriel, Y (2003) “glass palaces
and glass cages: organizations in
times of flexible work, fragmented
consumption and fragile selves”,
Ephemera, 3, 3, 166-184
Grint, K & Woolgar, S (1997) The
Machine at Work: Technology,
Work and Organisations
Virilio, P (1986) Speed and politics,
Semiotext (e)
Vertifeuille, J (1994) “ Fun factory:
Kids pay to play at the Discovery
Zone”, Roanoke Times & World
News, December 8th,