杜 荣

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Outline
• Chap1-1 Cross-cultural management
• Chap1-2 Globalization
• Chap1-3 Definitions of culture
• Chap1-4 Nature of culture
• Chap1-5 Cultural values
• Chap1-6 Dimensions of culture
• Chap1-7 Attitudinal Dimensions of Culture
• Chap1-8 Trompenaars’ s Cultural Dimensions
Cross-Cultural Management

Chap1-1
Cross-cultural management
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Cross-Cultural Management

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CCM is a fairly new field that is based on theories and research from:
• Cross Cultural Psychology
• International Business
• Organizational Behaviour
• Human Resources
• Anthropology
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Cross Cultural Management seeks to
• understand how national cultures affect management practices
• identify the similarities and differences across cultures in various management practices and organizational contexts
• increase effectiveness in global management
Cross-Cultural Management

Globalization
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Cross-Cultural Management

Like it or not, globalization is here…to stay.
• Most large companies have some kind of business relations with customers, companies, employees or various stakeholders in other countries…and cultures. (Global corporations)
• Many employees and managers deal with people from other cultures on a constant basis
• Most of us have a close experience with only one or two cultures…=>
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• We do not understand people from other cultures as readily and intuitively as people from our own culture =>
• Cross cultural management helps organization members to gain better understanding of other cultures, of their culture and of the consequences of people from different cultures working together
Cross-Cultural Management

Definitions of culture
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Cross-Cultural Management

Definition: acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social behavior.
Culture forms values, creates attitude, influences behavior.
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Nature of culture
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Characteristics of culture include:
• Learned
• Shared
• Transgenerational
• Symbolic
• Patterned
• Adaptive
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(P4: Culture and types of handshake)
• Cultural values
(P5: Priorities of cultural values: US, Japan)
(P5: examples where culture can affect management approaches)
Depict cultural diversity through concentric circles.
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Cross-Cultural Management

United States
1. Freedom
2. Independence
3. Self-reliance
4. Equality
5. Individualism
6. Competition
7. Efficiency
8. Time
9. Directness
10. Openness
Japan
1. Belonging
2. Group harmony
3. Collectiveness
4. Age/seniority
5. Group consensus
6. Cooperation
7. Quality
8. Patience
9. Indirectness
10. Go-between
Arab Countries
1. Family security
2. Family harmony
3. Parental guidance
4. Age
5. Authority
6. Compromise
7. Devotion
8. Patience
9. Indirectness
10. Hospitality
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Centralized vs.
Decentralized decision making
Cultural
Diversity
Informal vs.
formal procedures
Safety vs. risk High vs. low organizational loyalty
Individual vs.
group rewards
Cooperation vs.
competition
Sort-term vs.
long-term horizons
Cross-Cultural Management
Stability vs.
innovation

• Introduction to the course of cross-cultural management and our international teaching team
• Goals for Cross-cultural management
• Nature of culture
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Cross-Cultural Management

• A model of culture: concentric circles
• Comparing culture as a normal distribution
• Values in culture
• Hofstede’s cultural dimensions
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Explicit artifacts and products of the society
Norms and values that guide the society
Implicit, basic assumptions that guide people’s behavior
Cross-Cultural Management
Outer layer: observable, e.g. language, food, buildings, art.
Middle layer: helps people understand how they should behave.
Inner layer: intangible, helpful for problemsolving and well interactions with other people.

Chinese Culture
U.S. Culture
?
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?
Cross-Cultural Management

How Americans see the Chinese
• in community
• avoid confrontation
(keep in harmony)
• respect for authorities and seniors
How Chinese see Americans
• individualism
• face confrontation
(arguments and debates)
• respect for achievements
Chinese Culture
U.S. Culture
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Values: basic convictions that people have regarding what is right and wrong, good and bad, important and unimportant.
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• Value differences and similarities across cultures: P 10: “common personal values”
U.S. Values and possible alternatives
• Values in transition: work values change over time.
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Career
Stage
Entered the
Workforce
1. Protestant
Work Ethic
2. Existential
Mid-1940s to
Late 1950s
1960s to
Mid-1970s
3. Pragmatic Mid-1970s to
Mid-1980s
4. Generation X Mid-1980s through 1990s
Approximate
Current Age
50 to 65
35 to 50
35 to 35
Under 25
Dominant
Work Values
Hard working; loyal to firm; conservative
Nonconforming; seeks autonomy; loyal to self
Ambitious, hard worker; loyal to career
Flexible, values leisure; loyal to relationships
Cross-Cultural Management

Dimensions of culture
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• Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede found there are four dimensions of culture.
• Hofstede’s initial data: questionnaire surveys with over 116000 respondents from over 70 different countries who worked in the local subsidiaries of IBM.
• The fifth dimension was added later.
• Criticized because of its focus on just one company.
• Popular in the research field of cross-cultural management.
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 Power Distance
 Uncertainty Avoidance
 Individualism
 Masculinity
 Long-Term Orientation
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• Power Distance : the extent to which less powerful members of organizations accept that power is distributed unequally.
 Low: people treated as equals despite social status
 High: people accept authority relations
• Uncertainty avoidance : the extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these.
 Low: prefer few formal rules
 High: want clear behavioral guides
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• Individualism/ collectivism : the tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family only
(belong to groups or collectives and to look after each other in exchange for loyalty).
 Low: group behavior important
 High: individual behavior important
A bipolar continuum
Cross-Cultural Management

• Masculinity/ femininity : a situation in which the dominant values in society are success, money, and things (caring for others and the quality of life).
 Low: cooperation; friendly atmosphere; employment security; low stress; warm interpersonal relationships.
 High: competition; challenge; recognition; wealth; advancement; high stress; tight control.
A continuum
Masculinity Femininity
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• Long–term orientation : value placed on persistence, status, thrift
 Low: respect for tradition, personal stability, focused on the past
 High: perseverance, thrift, focused on the future
This dimension was added to depict the influence of Confucianism in Asia.
This dimension is similar to “Adjusting” proposed by Brugha and Du.
Cross-Cultural Management

Examples of Cultural Dimensions
Country
China
France
Germany
Hong Kong
Power
Distance
High
High
Low
High
Individualism*
Low
High
High
Low
Masculinity**
Moderate
Moderate
High
High
Indonesia
Japan
High
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Moderate
High
Netherlands
Russia
Low
High
High
Moderate
Low
Low
United States Low High High
West Africa High Low Moderate
* A low score is synonymous with collectivism
** A low score is synonymous with masculinity
*** A low score is synonymous with a short-term orientation
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Moderate
High
Moderate
Low
Low
Moderate
Moderate
High
Low
Moderate
Long-term
Orientation***
High
Low
Moderate
High
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Low
Low
Low

Two additional perspectives, of social/cross-cultural psychologists merit attention:
Markus & Kitayama : Independent &
Interdependent Construals
Triandis : Individualism-Collectivism
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Harry Triandis: Combination of Individualism vs. collectivism and power & achievement vs. benevolence & universalism
• VI: achievement + individualism (USA)
• HI: universalism + individualism (Sweden)
• VC: power + collectivism (India)
• HC: benevolence + collectivism (Israel; rare)
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• Universalism
• Benevolence
• Conformity & tradition
• Security
• Power
• Achievement
• Hedonism
• Stimulation
• Self Direction
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Openness to
Change
Stimulation
Exciting Life
Self-
Direction
Creativity,
Freedom
Universalism
Social Justice,
Equality
Self-
Transcendence
Benevolence
Helpfulness
Hedonism
Pleasure Conformity Tradition
Obedience
Humility
Devoutness
Self-
Enhancement
Achievement
Success,
Ambition
Power
Authority,
Wealth
Security
Social Order Conservation
Organized by motivational similarities and dissimilarities
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• 75,000 + respondents, varied samples in 68 countries
• Instrument lists 57 abstract value items
• “How important is each item as a guiding principle in your life?”
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Tasks in the next session:
 Students’ talks and presentations
 Discussion in groups: how to learn
Cross-cultural management?
Assignment after class:
Read a paper on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.
Cross-Cultural Management

• Integrating Hofstede’s cultural dimensions
• Attitudinal dimensions of culture
• Trompenaars’s cultural dimensions
• Integrating culture and management
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Cross-Cultural Management

Work Value and Attitude Similarities
• Research has revealed many similarities in both work values and attitudes
• Ronen and Kraut
– Smallest space analysis (SSA) - maps the relationship among countries by showing the distance between each on various cultural dimensions
– Can identify country clusters
• Ronen and Shenkar
– Examined variables in four categories
» Importance of work goals
» Need deficiency, fulfillment, and job satisfaction
» Managerial and organizational variables
» Work role and interpersonal orientation
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• Multi-country study and evaluation of cultural attributes and leadership behavior
• Are transformational characteristics of leadership universally endorsed?
• 170 country co-investigators
• 65 different cultures
• 17,500 middle managers
800 organisations
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• What traits are universally viewed as impediments to leadership effectiveness?
• Based on beliefs that
– Certain attributes that distinguish one culture from others can be used to predict the most suitable, effective and acceptable organizational and leader practices within that culture
– Societal culture has direct impact on organizational culture
– Leader acceptance stems from tying leader attributes and behaviors to subordinate norms
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Cross-Cultural Management

Variable Highest
Ranking
Medium
Ranking
Lowest
Ranking
Assertiveness
Future orientation
Spain, U.S.
Egypt, Ireland Sweden, New
Zealand
Denmark, Canada Slovenia, Egypt Russia, Argentina
Sweden Denmark Gender differentiation South Korea,
Egypt
Italy, Brazil
Uncertainty avoidance Austria, Denmark Israel, U.S.
Russia, Hungary
Power distance
Collectivism/Societal
In-group collectivism
Russia, Spain
Denmark,
Singapore
Egypt, China
England, France Demark, Netherlands
Hong Kong, U.S. Greece, Hungary
Performance orientation U.S., Taiwan
England, France Denmark,
Netherlands
Sweden, Israel Russia, Argentina
Humane orientation Indonesia, Egypt Hong Kong,
Sweden
Germany, Spain

• Research produced five cultural dimensions that are based on relationship orientations and attitudes toward both time and the environment
• Universalism vs. Particularism
– Universalism - belief that ideas and practices can be applied everywhere in the world without modification
• Focus on formal rules and rely on business contacts
– Particularism belief that circumstances dictate how ideas and practices should be applied and something cannot be done the same everywhere
• Focus on relationships, working things out to suit the parties
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• Individualism vs. Communitarianism
– Individualism - people regard themselves as individuals
• Rely on individuals to make decisions
– Communitarianism - people regard themselves as part of a group
• Seek consultation and mutual consent before making decisions
• Neutral vs. Emotional
– Neutral - culture in which emotions are held in check
• People try not to show their feelings
– Emotional - culture in which emotions are expressed openly and naturally
• People smile, talk loudly, greet each other with enthusiasm
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• Specific vs. Diffuse
– Specific - culture in which individuals have a large public space they readily share with others and a small private space they guard closely and share with only close friends and associates
• People often are open and extroverted
• Work and private life are separate
– Diffuse - culture in which both public and private space are similar in size and individuals guard their public space carefully, because entry into public space affords entry into private space as well
• People often appear indirect and introverted, and work and private life often are closely linked
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• Achievement vs. Ascription
– Achievement - culture in which people are accorded status based on how well they perform their functions
– Ascription - culture in which status is attributed based on who or what a person is
• For example, status may be accorded on the basis of age, gender, or social connections
• Time
– Sequential approach to time - people do one thing at a time, keep appointments strictly, follow plans to the letter
– Synchronous approach - people do more than one thing at a time, appointments are approximate
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• Environment
– Inner-directed
• People believe in controlling environmental outcomes
– Outer-directed
• People believe in allowing things to take their natural course
• Cultural Patterns or Clusters
– Defined groups of countries that are similar to each other in terms of the five dimensions and the orientations toward time and the environment
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Anglo cluster
Relationship United States United Kingdom
Individualism x x
Communitarianism
Specific relationship x x
Diffuse relationship
Universalism x x
Particularism
Neutral relationship x
Emotional relationship x
Achievement x x
Ascription
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Asian cluster
Relationship Japan China Indonesia Hong Kong Singapore
Individualism
Communitarianism
Specific relationship x x x x x
Diffuse relationship x x x x x
Universalism
Particularism x x x x x
Neutral relationship x x x x
Emotional relationship x
Achievement
Ascription x x x x x
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Latin American cluster
Relationship Argentina Mexico Venezuela Brazil
Individualism x x x
Communitarianism
Specific relationship
Diffuse relationship x x x x
Universalism
Particularism x x x x
Neutral relationship x x x
Emotional relationship x
Achievement x x
Ascription x x
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Latin-European cluster
Relationship France Belgium Spain Italy
Individualism x
Communitarianism x x x
Specific relationship x x
Diffuse relationship x x
Universalism x x x
Particularism x
Neutral relationship x
Emotional relationship x x x
Achievement x
Ascription x x x
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Germanic cluster
Relationship Austria Germany Switzerland Czechoslovakia
Individualism x
Communitarianism x x x
Specific relationship x x x
Diffuse relationship x
Universalism x x x x
Particularism
Neutral relationship x x
Emotional relationship x x
Achievement x x x
Ascription x
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Edward
T. Hall
Geert
Hofstede
Trompenaars
Culture
Elements
• time
• space
• things
• friendships
• agreements
& interpersonal behavior
Value
Patterns
• power
• risk
• individualism
• masculinity
• long term orientation
& management theories practice
Value
Patterns
• universalism
– particularism
• collectivism – individualism
• affective
–neutral relationships
• specificity – diffuseness
• achievement – ascription
• time orientation
• Internal –external control
&
Int’l. business practice
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Kluckhohn &
Strodbeck
Variations in Value
Orientations
• relation to nature
• orientation to time
• belief about human nature
• mode of human activity
• relationships
• space
&
Int’l. business practice
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