9 Domains of Development
1.
Physical-Maturational
2.
Cognitive-Intellectual
3.
Artistic-Creative
4.
Linguistic-Communicative
5.
Knowledge-Skill
6.
Social-Interpersonal
7.
Moral-Ethical
8.
Personality-Individuality
9.
Emotional-Affective
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Theorists Connected with Each of the
9 Domains of Development
1.
2.
3.
4.
Physical-Maturational
Cognitive-Intellectual
Social-Interpersonal
Moral-Ethical
(Gesell)
(Piaget, Damon)
(Youniss, Selman, Damon)
(Piaget, Kohlberg, Kagan,
Hoffman, Damon)
5. Knowledge-Skill
(Vygotsky, Damon)
6. Linguistic
(Chomsky)
7. Artistic-Creative
(Lowenfeld, Gardner)
8. Personality-Individuality (Freud, Erikson, Dowlby,
Ainsworth)
9. Emotional-Affective
(Hoffman, Kagan)
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Descriptors of These Theorists’ Models
1. Psychosexual Personality Development (Freud)
2. Psychosocial Personality Development (Erikson)
3. Developmental Tasks as Developmental Milestones (Havighurst)
4. Cognitive Development (Piaget)
5. Moral Reasoning Development (Kohlberg, Piaget, Havighurst)
6. Moral Emotion Development (Hoffman, Kagan)
7. Social-Conceptual Development (Damon, Selman, Youniss)
8. Scaffolded Knowledge and Skill Development (Vygotsky, Damon)
9. Ecological-Social Development (Bronfenbrenner)
10. Maturational-Biological Milestones (Gesell)
11. Ethological Personality-by-Attachment (Bowlby, Ainsworth)
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Some Developmental Mechanisms
• Maturation (genetic program for growth)
• Imitation (essential for learning)
• Practice (essential for consolidation)
• Habituation (promotes novel exploration)
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Three issues addressed by developmental
theorists
• Continuity or Discontinuity of Growth
Can development be characterized as a gradual change
process, or does it present sudden, distinct bursts of
change?
• The Influence of Maturation Versus Experience
Is development primarily influenced by biologically
inherited, genetic factors, or by environmental
experiences (nature or nurture)?
• Individual Differences
What makes individuals different?
To what extent are individual characteristics stable over
time?
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
ADULTHOOD
ADULTHOOD
INFANCY
CONTINUOUS
DISCONTINUOUS
Some theories view development as a relatively
continuous process. In contrast, stage theories
assume that development is discontinuous and
involves periodic qualitative milestone changes.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Piaget’s Stages of
Cognitive Development
Age Range
Birth to nearly
2 years of age
About 2 to 6
years of age
About 7 to 11
years of age
About 12 years
of age through
adulthood
Description of Stage
Sensorimotor
Developmental
Phenomena
Experiencing the world through the
senses and exploration (looking,
hearing, touching, mouthing, etc.)
• Object permanence
• Stranger anxiety
Preoperational
• Pretend play
• Egocentrism
• Rapid language
development
Representing things with words
and images but have no logical
reasoning abilities
Concrete operational
Thinking logically about concrete
events; grasping concrete analogies
and performing math operations
Formal operational
Abstract reasoning; reflection;
thinking about thinking
• Conservation
• Mathematical
transformations
• Abstract logic
• Potential for
moral reasoning
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
The child begins to
interact with the
environment
The child begins to
represent the world
symbolically.
Sensorimotor Stage
Preoperational Stage
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
Children learn rules such
as game rules and the law
of conservation, and they
take them very seriously
The adolescent can transcend
concrete situations and think about
the future and their own thinking
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
PreOperational
Concrete
Operational
Coordination of
sensory input
and motor
responses;
development of
object
permanence;
begin to
explore
environment
Early symbolic
thought
marked by
irreversibility,
concentration,
& egocentrism;
assume you
know what they
know; cannot
decenter
Mental
operations are
applied to
concrete
events only;
mastery of
conservation
and
hierarchical
classification;
cannot think
abstractly
Birth to 2 Years
2 to 7 Years
7 to 11 Years
Sensorimotor
Formal
Operational
Mental
operations are
applied to
abstract ideas;
begin logical,
systematic
thinking;
imagine
hypothetical
events;
manipulate
symbols in
their minds
12 to adult
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development identifies
four stages marked by qualitatively different modes
of thinking. Interaction with the environment and
maturation gradually alter the way children think.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Types of
Games
and Play
Game Rule
Practice
and
Consciousness
Basic Morality
Is Respect
for Rules
Pre-Cooperative
Parallel
Egocentric
Cooperative
Immature Cooperative
Mature Cooperative
A casual attitude
Rules are viewed as sacred,
Rules are viewed as a
toward game rules; few
obligatory,
product of mutual
rules are understood; unchangeable; game rules consent; game rules are
games ignored
are vaguely understood
codified and of intense
Heteronomy: morality of constraint; imposed
Autonomy: morality of cooperation;interest
cooperation
constraints maintain egocentrism; constraints
and reciprocity emerge from relationships among
are a
necessary precondition for the
peer equals that deliver them from egocentrism to
development of moral autonomy
moral autonomy and a mature sense of justice
Sense of
Justice
Justice is what is
commanded by authority:
Heteronomy
Equalitarianism
Equity
Born of solidarity & mutual
respect among equals
Consider intentions &
situation when judging
Thinking
Capacity
Pre-Operational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
Take the perspective of
others; conceptual but not
abstract reasoning
Can think logically and
abstractly; can consider
many viewpoints
Can't take the perspective of others; can't think
about their own thinking
Concept of
Responsibility
Objective sense of responsibility: acts
evaluated in terms of material consequences;
evaluations based on observable factors
Subjective sense of responsibility: acts evaluated in
terms of motives/intentions; acts judged immoral if
they violate norm of reciprocity central to moral rules
Morality
of Good
Affection between parent and child yields
morality of good; develops along side the
morality of justice
No further explanation
Moral
Affect
Feeling of obligation to follow rules of respected
authority; raw material for future autonomous
moral behavior is present in sympathetic
tendencies and affective reactions
Feeling of obligation to follow rules emerging from cooperation
and respect among equals (reflects valuing of reciprocity);
"moral sentiments and motivation" to do right reflect the
subordination of early "sympathetic tendencies" and "affective
reactions" to rules; "will" is the permanent set of constructed
"values" to which one one adheres
Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000
©
Robert Havighurst’s
“Developmental Task Theory”
Click Here
He also introduced the concepts of “teachable
moment,” “authoritarian conscience,” and “rational
conscience,” concepts similar to those of Piaget.
The idea of "developmental tasks" is appropriately credited to Robert
Havighurst who stated that the concept was developed in the 1930s and
40s by Frank, Zachry, Prescott, and Tyron. He further stated, “The
developmental-task concept occupies a middle ground between two
opposing theories of education: the theory of freedom — that the child will
develop best if left as free as possible; and the theory of constraint — that
the child must learn to become a worthy, responsible adult through
restraints imposed by his society [inculcation]. A developmental task is
midway between an individual need and a societal demand. It assumes
an active learner interacting with an active social environment.” Tasks for
three of the developmental stages are presented on the next three slides.
Drawn from the description of Havighurst’s book in Developmental Advising: Annotated Bibliography for Research Published Prior to 1999, an annotated bibliography
compiled by G. Steele and Melinda McDonald for the NACADA Journal. Retrieved from http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Journal/developmental.htm The book is Havighurst, R.
J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay.
Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Developmental Tasks of Middle Childhood:
Ages 6-12
1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games;
2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing
organism;
3. Learning to get along with age-mates;
4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role;
5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and
calculating;
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living;
7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values;
8. Achieving personal independence;
9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions.
Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Developmental Tasks of Adolescence
Ages 12-18
1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates
of both sexes;
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role;
3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively;
4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other
adults;
5. Preparing for marriage and family life;
6. Preparing for an economic career;
7. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide
to behavior; developing an ideology;
8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.
Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay.
Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Developmental Tasks of
Early Adulthood
1.
Selecting a mate;
2.
Achieving a masculine or feminine social role;
3.
Learning to live with a marriage partner;
4.
Starting a family;
5.
Rearing children;
6.
Managing a home;
7.
Getting started in an occupation;
8.
Taking on civic responsibility;
9.
Finding a congenial social group.
.
Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Early Language
Development
16 of 25 consonant sounds
by 30 months
See cat!
Telegraphic
means lacking
connection words
Grpmph
!
Cat! said with
gestures;
serves as whole
sentence
Gradual narrowing of sounds to
meaningful phonemes of the
language being learned
9-12 months is the quiet
period since there is a
decrease in vocalization
Epigenetic principle: genetically determined unfolding of maturation; HOW
we turn out is a function of social/environmental forces
and experience in interaction with genotype.
Erikson, E.H. (1950). Childhood and Society. New
York:Norton. Erikson, E.H. (1964). Insight and Responsibility.
NewYork: Norton. To learn more about Erikson, begin here:
http://elvers.stjoe.udayton.edu/history/people/Erikson.html
Trust
versus
Mistrust
Autonomy
versus
Shame
& Doubt
Is my world
Predictable
and
Supportive?
Can I do
things myself
or must I
depend
on others?
Infancy
Babies
Toddlerhood
Initiative
versus
Guilt
Am I
Good
or am
I Bad?
Early
Childhood
Industry
versus
Inferiority
Identity
versus
Role
Confusion
Am I
Competent
or am I a
worthless
failure?
Who am I
and
where
am I
going?
Late
Childhood
Adolescence
Intimacy
versus
Isolation
Shall I
share my
life with
another
or live
alone?
Young
Adulthood
Generativity
versus
Absorption
Integrity
versus
Despair
Will I
produce
something
of real
value
or leave
a legacy?
Have I
lived
a full
life and
taken
advantage
of what
life
offered?
Middle Age
Late Adult
Erikson’s theory of personality development proposes that people
move through eight stages during their lives. Each stage brings a
psychosocial crisis or conflict that needs to be resolved interactively.
Each involves confronting a question such as, “Who am I and where
am I going?” The stages are described above in terms of personality
traits that are potential outcomes from handling these crises.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial-Developmental Crises
(Stages) of Personality Formation
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004 ©
Developmental
Stages and Age
Ranges
Psychosocial
Oral-Sensory
Birth to 12-18
Months
Muscular-Anal
18 Months to 3
Years of Age
Trust
vs
Mistrust
Crisis
or Conflict
Autonomy
vs Shame/Doubt
Significant
Important
Healthful
Problematic
Relations
Events
Virtues
Traits
Mother
Feeding
Parents
Toilet
Training
Hope
Faith
Will
Independence
Locomotion
3 to 6
Years
of Age
Initiative
vs
Guilt
Family
Exploration
Doing Things
Latency
6
to 12
Years of
Age
Industry
vs
Inferiority
Neighbor
&
School Children
Adolescence 12
to 18 Years of
Age
Identity
vs Role
Confusion
Young Adult
19 to 29 Years
of Age
Sensory
Distortion
Withdrawal
Impulsivity
Compulsivity
Self-Doubt
Purpose Courage
Imagining
Cruelty
Inhibition Fear
of Failure
School Making
Things Well
Competence
Skill, Pride
Conscience
Inferiority Lack
of SelfConfidence
Peer Cliques
Girl/Boy Friend
Role Models
Consolidation of
Roles
Identifications
Fidelity
Loyalty
Fanaticism
Repudiation
Intimacy
vs
Isolation
Friends
&
Life Partners
Committed
Love Trust
Promiscuity
Exclusivity
Middle Age 30
to 55 Years of
Age
Generativity vs
Self-Absorption
Household
Members &
Work Mates
Supporting Next
Generation
Caring
Altruism
Over- Extension
Rejecting
Old Age
56
to 100 Years of
Age
Integrity
vs
Despair
Mankind
or
“My-kind”
Physical Decline
Death
Relationships
Wisdom
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2000
Presumption
Despair
Erikson’s Psychosocial
Development Continued
Early Attachment
• Erikson proposes that our first major
conflict is encountered in the first year
Trust vs. Mistrust
• Infants develop trust through
Social Attachment (see Attachment Theory)
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Erikson’s Psychosocial
Development Continued
• In the second year of development the
child encounters the conflict of . . .
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
• The child explores the environment
and seeks the independence to do so.
• Parents who stifle their children during
this stage cause feelings of shame and
doubt.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Erikson’s Psychosocial
Development Continued
• In the third year of development, the
child faces the conflict of . . .
Initiative vs. Guilt
• The child starts to show initiative in play
and control over emotions.
• The child also begins to gain a sense of
what is right and wrong based on their
experiences.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Erikson’s Psychosocial
Development Continued
• From ages 6 through 12, the child
faces the conflict over
Industry vs Inferiority
• Industrious children build a sense
of competence and self-confidence.
• Non-industrious children begin to
develop inferiority complexes.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
(Scaffolded Knowledge/Skill Acquisition)
• Children’s cognitive development is heavily influenced
by social and cultural factors via relationships.
• Children’s thinking develops through dialogues with
more capable people, usually parents and teachers.
• The Zone of Proximal Development is the range of
tasks a child cannot master alone. Even though they
may be close to having the necessary mental skills,
they need guidance in order to complete the tasks.
• Scaffolding is a framework of temporary support.
Adults help children learn how to think by scaffolding
or by supporting their attempts to solve problems and
discover principles. Scaffolding must be responsive to
children’s needs.
Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Vygotsky’s Theory of Development
• Zone of Proximal Development encompasses
the range of tasks that are too difficult for children
to master alone but within their capacity to learn
with guidance and assistance from adults or more
skilled children.
• Scaffolding involves changing the level of support
over the course of teaching something — the more
skilled person/teacher adjusts the amount of
guidance to fit students’ current performance level.
• Language and Thought: young children use
language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior
in a self-regulatory fashion – Vygotsky called this
“inner speech” or private speech.
Primary Source: Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press. Another source: Vygotsky, L. S. (1989). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. To learn more, begin with Clifford
Morris’s information at http://www.igs.net/~cmorris/zpd.html entitled Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development 1..
Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
It is important to
study human development
in it’s broader social-environmental
context because the structure of
the environment influences
development.
Ecological Theories
of Human Development
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
5
Environmental Systems:
microsystem: setting where individual lives
mesosystem: interrelations among microsystems
comprising the local community
exosystem: experiences in the larger social
system or society of which the microsystem
and mesosystem are parts
macrosystem: the individual’s culture
chronosystem: environmental events and
transitions over time
One PPT source retrieved at http://www.ualberta.ca/~liame/106b1/notes7.ppt#20 – no author identified.
Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Changes in
systems
over time
CHRONOSYSTEM
MACROSYSTEM
EXOSYSTEM
SOCIETY
AT LARGE
MESOSYSTEM
Home
Educational
System
INDIVIDUAL
Home
Church
Neighborhood
Workplace
Cultural Norms
Peer
Group
School
Government
Agencies
Traditions
MICROSYSTEM
Where the
individual lives
Interrelations
among
microsystems
Commerce and
Industry
Dominant Beliefs and
Ideologies
CULTURE
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
BIOLOGICALMATURATIONAL THEORIES
Amniotic
Sac
Frontal
Lobes
Egg
Placenta
Sperm
Cells
Umbilical
Cord
Eye
Liver
Prenatal Development
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Biological-Maturational
Theories of Development
Emphasize the genetic, biological, and
evolutionary basis of human
development.
The central concept is maturation — a
genetically predetermined sequence of
physical and psychophysiological
changes. These changes take place at
about the
same age for most people.
The environment has a significant
influence
on when changes occur and the degree
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Affection for children
Affection for adults
Elation
Joy
Delight
Excitement
Distress
Anger
Jealousy
Disgust
Fear
Months
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
Emotions are rapidly differentiated from an initial capacity for excitement
(K.M.B. Bridges, 1932). Today, there is great interest in genetically determined
temperamental characteristics from which personality forms, such as sociability .
K. M. B. Bridges, (1932). Emotional development in early infancy. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 37. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Temperament
•
•
The biological-genetic basis for the self-expressive, arousal,
and self-regulatory components of personality. These are
evident in infancy in
the forms of activity level, irritability, fearfulness, sociability,
etc.
In 1977 Thomas & Chess stated that childhood temperamental
characteristics are relatively innate and well-established by 2-3
months of age. They identified tree types of temperament
evident in infancy:
• Easy ─ high approach response; positive mood
(mild to moderate intensity); quick adaptability;
• Difficult ─ high withdrawal response; frequent
negative
mood of high intensity; slow adaptability;
• Slow-to-warm-up ─ many withdrawal responses (
mild to moderate intensity); slow adaptability.
Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel
•
In 1984 Buss & Plomin proposed the following criteria for
temperament:
Inherited,
present early in development,
Maturation does not
take place in a vacuum.
There are critical periods during
which children must have certain types
of experiences in order for perceptual and
cognitive abilities to develop normally, thus
confirming the “use it or lose it” saying.
For example, in order to develop correct binocular
depth perception, the eyes must receive sensory input
between age one and three years.
A child who was kept in confinement by her
parents until the age of thirteen without
being spoken to never acquired
spoken language beyond two
or three word phrases.
Written and arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development
•
•
•
The mother’s behavior can harm her fetus in in several ways:
Severely inadequate nutrition
– Risk of complications during delivery and neurological problems
– Increased risk of mental disorders later in life
Drug use
– Fetal alcohol syndrome is a congenital set of physical and mental problems
caused by alcohol use during pregnancy. This set includes microcephaly
(small head), heart defects, hyperactivity, mental retardation, motor
abnormalities, abnormal facial features.
– The affects of social drinking during pregnancy include deficient intelligence, a
slow reaction time, weak motor skills, inattention, impulsivity, and poor social
skills.
– Tobacco, alcohol, and drugs, both prescription and recreational, are also linked
to birth defects.
Viral Illnesses
– Viruses can affect prenatal development with the amount of damage depending
on (a) when during pregnancy the mother becomes ill, (b) the type of illness,
and (c) the medications taken.
– Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, and severe influenza can cause
extreme abnormalities or death.
Slide prepared by Gordon Vessels. Primary sources: Gurnee, Mary C. and Sylvestri, Mario F. (2005). Teratogenicity of Drugs, accessed at U.S. Pharmacist, a Johnson
Publication at http://www.uspharmacist.com/oldformat.asp?url=newlook/files/Feat/ACF3001.cfm&pub_id=8&article_id=134; The Ohio State University Medical Center (2005).
Risks during pregnancy, a public service document accessed at http://medicalcenter.osu.edu/patientcare/healthinformation/diseasesandconditions/maternity/care/risks.cfm
Attachment Theory
Mary Ainsworth
John Bowlby
• Postulate: the human infant is pre-adapted to
respond to it’s caregiver.
• Evolutionary function: attachment behaviors
promote close proximity to the caregiver so that
the child can be protected from danger.
• Type of attachment is influenced by caregiving behavior; children can be categorized as:
–
Secure
–
Ambivalent (seek comfort but show
anger or resistance)
–
Avoidant
–
Insecure-disorganized
Primary source: Werner-Wilson, Ronald J. (2005). Types of attachment, a PPT slide show retrieved from
http://www.public.iastate.edu/~hd_fs.511/lecture/Types_of_Attachment.ppt Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Researching Attachment: Strange Situation Test
The infant is put through eight
The Strange Situation Test involves separating
standardized episodes or situations, all
the very young child (toddler) from
meant to elicit differing levels of distress.
its mother or primary caregiver
These include an experimenter entering the
and then reuniting the
room, one or both leaving, and a stranger
child with the
entering either with or without the parent
parent.
in the room. Based on the infant’s
reaction to these situations, his
or her type of attachment
with the mother or
is identified.
From Messer, D. and Miller, S. (1999). Exploring Developmental Psychology. Copy
of photo found at http://ibs.derby.ac.uk/~steve/devpsy/powerpoint/lec7social.ppt#7
This is carried out under controlled and
monitored conditions and involves carefully
recording the child’s reactions and the parent’s
behavior. It was developed by Mary Ainsworth who
extended the earlier groundbreaking work of John Bowlby.
Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the
Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Infant reunion responses following their
separation
from their mothers:
• Secure (B type) behavior
– positive, greeting of mother, being
comforted
• Avoidant (A type) behavior
– not seeking contact, avoiding
gaze
• Ambivalent (C type) behavior
– not comforted, overly passive,
show anger
• Disorganised (D type) Behavior
– totally disorganised and confused
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Mothers of ambivalent infants tend to be
inconsistent, insensitive, and unpredictable in their
interactions with their babies.
The mothers of insecure-avoidant babies tend to
be averse to physical contact, are inclined to
interfere unnecessarily, and generally appear
emotionally unavailable or dismissive.
The mothers of insecure-disorganized infants are
typically suffering from an unresolved trauma,
such as abuse or the unresolved loss of an
attachment figure, which results in their babies
being afraid of them. The mother may actually be
abusive or neglectful.
Click to Learn More
Source: Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1982). Attachment: retrospect and prospect. In C.M. Parkes and J. Stevenson-Hinde, (Eds.) The Place of Attachment in
Human Behavior. (pp 3-30) New York: Basic Books. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005.
Correspondence Between Child & Adult
Attachment Styles
CHILD ATTACHMENT STYLE
PARENT ATTACHMENT STYLE
SECURE: Limited distress,
continued exploration after initial reunion
SECURE/AUTONOMOUS: developmentally
appropriate interaction; recognizes
significance of attachment.
AVOIDANT: child appears
indifferent
DISMISSING: dismissive about attachment;
withdrawn and
rejecting
RESISTANT OR AMBIVALENT:
child appears distressed and is preoccupied
with caregiver and clingish
PREOCCUPIED: recognizes significance of
attachment but is preoccupied with past and
appears angry; blurred or unclear
boundaries
DISORGANIZED/DISORIENTED: difficult to
categorize reunion with caregiver; describes
80% of maltreated children.
UNRESOLVED/DISORGANIZED: frightened
by memory of past;
trauma promotes momentary disassociation;
scripts child into
past dramas
Primary source: Werner-Wilson, Ronald J. (2005). Types of attachment, a PPT slide show retrieved from
http://www.public.iastate.edu/~hd_fs.511/lecture/Types of_Attachment.ppt Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Ambivalent
Unclassified
5%
10%
22%
Avoidant
63%
Secure
In the United States, about two thirds of all children
from middle-class families are securely attached.
About one child in three is insecurely attached.
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Bowlby’s Attachment Stages
• Birth to 2-3 months
– Undiscriminating social responsivenss
• 2-3 months to 6-7 months
– Discriminating social responsiveness
• 6-7 months to 3 years
– Active proximity seeking /true
attachment
• 3 years and older
– Goal-corrected partnership
Sources: Bowlby, John. (1982). Attachment and Loss. Vol. 1. NY: Basic Books; list presented in this slide also listed in slide #5 created at the
University of Idaho, retrieved at http://www.class.uidaho.edu/psych/faculty/Tammy/Tammy's%20305%20Notes/socialrelationships.ppt#5.
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Percentage of infants who cried
when their mothers left
Separation Distress: Another
Indicator of Attachment
100
80
Day-care
60
40
Home
20
0
0.0
3.5
5.5
7.5
9.5
11.5 13.5 15.5
Age in months
Groups of infants
who had and had not
experienced daycare were left by
their mothers in an
unfamiliar room.
17.5
19.5
21.5
23.5
25.5
29
Gordon Vessels’ 2005 recreation of graph in a PPT show by Mahnaz Rehmatullah at http://www.uta.edu/psychology/faculty/mahnaz/classnotes/1315/Ch04_Developing%20Person.ppt#34ed.
He took it from Kagan, Jerome (1976), The role of the family during the first half decade. In V. Vaughn& T. Brazelton (Eds.), The family:Can it be saved? Chicago: Yearbook Medical Publishers.
Attachment Theory Research Findings
•
Main & Cassidy (1988) ─ Kindergarten children’s self-esteem was found to be related to
secure attachment. Main, M., & Cassidy, J. (1988). Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predictable from infant attachment
classifications and stable over a 1-month period. Developmental Psychology, 24, 415-426.
•
Lamb et al., (1984) ─ They found the link between attachment style and social-emotional
adjustment was only there if family circumstances remained stable.
Lamb, M. E., Thompson, R. A., Gardner, W. P., Charnov, E. L, & Estes, D. (1984). Security of infantile attachment as assessed in the "strange situation": Its study and
biological interpretation. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7, 127-171.
•
•
Frankel & Cates (1990) ─ They found that securely attached infants became better problem
solvers than insecurely attached infants.
Crandell & Hobson (1999) ─ They compared 20 secure and 16 insecure mothers and their
kids who were all three years old; the children of secure mothers scored 19 points higher
on an IQ test; the degree of parent-child “synchrony” was also related to the children’s IQs.
Crandell, L.E. and Hobson, R.P. (1999). Individual Differences in Young Children's IQ: A Social-developmental Perspective, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and
Allied Disciplines, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 455-464(10). Publisher: Blackwell Publishing
•
Park & Waters (1989) ─ They found that securely attached children coordinate their
activities with friends more harmoniously than others.
Park, K. A., & Waters, E. (1989). Security of attachment and preschool friendships. Child Development, 60, 1076-1081.
•
Meins & Russell (1997) ─ They found greater social responsiveness and flexibility for
securely attached children age two and one-half years. Meins, E, & Russell, J (1997). Security and symbolic play: the
relation between security of attachment and executive capacity British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 1, 63-76
•
Sroufe et al., (1993) ─ In this longitudinal study, the researchers found that 10-11 year old
children identified as securely attached in their first year had more positive “outcomes.”
Avoidant infants became isolated. Ambivalent infants became deviant and more difficult to
manage at home and school (e.g. hyperactive, aggressive, etc.).
Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Kreutzer, T. (1990). The fate of early experience following developmental change: Longitudinal approaches to individual adaptation in childhood.
Child Development, 61, 1363-1373. Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (1999). One social world: The integrated development of parent-child and peer relationships.
In W. A. Collins & B. Laursen (Eds.) Relationships as developmental context: The 29th Minnesota symposium on child psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
•
Fonagy et al., (19907) ─ They found that secure preschoolers and young school-age children
were more competent on various mental tasks.
Fonagy, P, Redfern, S, Charman, T (1997). The relationship between belief-desire reasoning and a projective measure of attachment security British Journal of Developmental
Psychology, 15, 1, 51-61.
Prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Ainsworth’s Attachment Classifications
versus
Thomas & Chess’s Temperament Profiles
Percent
of One Year
Olds
Temperament
Profile
Percent
of Infants
Attachment
Classification
Easy
60%
Secure
63%
Difficult
15%
Resistant
8%
Slow to
Warm Up
23%
Avoidant
29%
Data drawn from a similar chart created by faculty at the University of Western Ontario for undergraduate students taking course 240 B . No specific
faculty author is listed. Retrieved at http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/undergraduate/psych240b-2/lectureslides/attachment_final.ppt#79
Parenting Styles ─ Baumrind
• Authoritarian
–
–
–
Child is told, “Do it because I said so!”
A punitive and highly controlling parenting style
Only concerned about obedience
• Authoritative
–
–
–
Use firm but fair discipline with an emphasis on communication
and high expectations for moral maturity
Are less likely to use physical punishment
Involve children in decisions and rule-making
• Permissive
–
–
Loose and inconsistent structure
Children given much freedom in deciding activities, rules, and
schedules and must often make decisions they do not feel
comfortable making.
Source: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967).
Retrieved from http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html. Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967). Child
care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, 43-88.
Prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Baumrind
Parent-Child Relationships
Baumrind (1983) states that there are 3 types of
parenting:
• Permissive – set few rules and rarely punish
their children.
• Authoritarian – set strict rules and rely on
punishment.
• Authoritative – warm and loving with firm but fair
discipline and much communication about moral
maturity
Source: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967).
Retrieved from http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html. Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967).
Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, 43-88.
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
What parenting style is best?
Outcomes associated with different styles
– Authoritarian
• Lack of social competence
• Aggression and a disregard for others’ rights
• Most social contact confined to deviant peers
• Externally imposed “heteronomous” morality
– Authoritative
• Greater self-reliance and self-confidence
• More sociable, adventuresome, and respectful of others
– Permissive
• Immature, impulsive, unable to take others’ perspective
Limitations of research
– Culturally biased? (most research carried out with white,
middle class children and adolescents)
– Confusion of causality? Kids may elicit parenting styles.
Slide prepared by Gordon Vessels in 2005. His Sources: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original
Descriptions of the Styles (1967). Retrieved from http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html. Original source: Buamrind,
Diana (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, 43-88.
ANOTHER CLASSIFICATION
of PARENTING
PARENTING
STYLES
STYLES
Accepting
Nurturing
Responsive
Demanding
Controlling
Not Demanding
Not Controlling
Rejecting
Unresponsive
Emotionally Aloof
Authoritative
Authoritarian
Diana Baumrind
Rejecting
Overly Strict
Indulgent
Neglectful
Accepting
Permissive
Rejecting
Permissive
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Development of “Prosocial” Behavior
•
Pro-social behavior is the aspect of
moral conduct that includes socially
desirable behaviors such as sharing,
helping, and cooperating.
•
Pro-social behavior in infancy: babies
cry when they hear the crying of other
babies but not when they hear taperecorded crying ─ suggests at least a
primitive level of global empathy
•
Martin Hoffman traced the development
of empathy through four stages.
Sources: Hoffman, Martin (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge University Press;
Hoffman, Martin (1977). Moral internalization: current theory and research. In L. Berkowitz, (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Psychology, Vol.
10, New York: Academic Press; Hoffman, Martin (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.) The
Development of Prosocial Behavior. New York: Academic Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.
Development of empathy
• Empathy involves feeling and understanding another’s
emotional state, which goes beyond mere sympathy.
• Martin Hoffman’s research has yielded the following:
– emotional contagion of newborns (global empathy)
– during the second year, babies actively attempt to
comfort a person in distress, particularly their moms
• has been shown in reactions to staged events
such as mother’s pretending to hurt an ankle.
– preschoolers empathize with a wider set of feelings
and can empathize with people they have not met
including story characters they can only imagine and
people they learn about through the media.
– between 6 and 9 years of age, children begin to
empathize with people based on their knowledge of
troublesome social-environmental conditions such as
being sick, living in poverty, or losing a relative.
Sources: Hoffman, Martin (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge University
Press; Hoffman, Martin (1977). Moral internalization: current theory and research. In L. Berkowitz, (Ed.), Advances in Experimental
Psychology, Vol. 10, New York: Academic Press; Hoffman, Martin (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: empathy and guilt.
In N. Eisenberg (Ed.) The Development of Prosocial Behavior. New York: Academic Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.
The Development of Moral Reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg
Explained how children and teens develop a sense
of right and wrong (an ethic of justice)
– Looked at reasoning through dilemmas rather
than behavior or moral emotion
– Examined the nature and progression of moral
reasoning or judgment through several stages.
– He proposed 3 Levels of Moral Reasoning:
• Preconventional
– Punishment orientation (stage 1)
– Reward orientation (stage 2)
• Conventional
– Good boy/good girl orientation (stage 3)
– Respect for authority orientation (stage 4)
• Postconventional
– Social contract orientation (stage 5)
– Individual principles/conscience orientation (stage 6)
Kohlberg, Lawrence (Ed.) (1983). The Psychology of Moral Development. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005.
KOHLBERG'S BEHAVIORAL-SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY
View of "Right"
That Which
Gains
Approval
From
Others
Primary Levels
Pre-Conventional
(self-serving)
Conventional
(other- serving)
That Which
Adheres
to
Rules or
Principles
PostConventional
(principleserving)
Motivation
Perspective
Age/Grade
Punishment
Avoiding
Egocentric
Preschool
Early Childhood
Pleasure/
Reward Seeking
Individualistic
Grades K-2
Middle Childhood
Acceptance/
Approval Seeking
Interpersonal
Grades 3-5
Late Childhood
Rule Following/
Status Seeking
Organizational
Grades 6-8
Early Adolescence
Law Abiding/
Rights Respecting
Societal
Grades 9-12
Late Adolescence
Justice Seeking/
Conscience Driven
Universal
Adulthood
Developed by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2000 ©
Moral Development and
Conceptions of Fairness: Damon
Studied 4 through 12 year old children’s ideas
about fairness (positive justice), and how
they thought rewards and resources should be
divided-up or distributed. A sample story:
A classroom of children spent a day drawing pictures. Some
children made a lot of drawings; some made fewer. Some
children drew well; others did not. Some children were wellbehaved and worked hard; others fooled around. Some
children were poor; some were boys; some were girls. The
class then sold the drawings at a school fair. How should the
money from the sale of the drawings be given to out to the
students who painted pictures?
Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy
Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.
Moral Development and
Conceptions of Fairness: Damon
• In his studies of kids in the USA, Israel,
Puerto Rico, and parts of Europe, Damon
found that ideas of fairness develop
through a sequence of levels:
– Under age 4, children simply state their
desires and give no reason for their choice.
– Four and five year old kids state their desires
but justify their choices on the basis of
external factors (e.g. ¨we should get more
because we are girls, or . . . we are bigger¨)
Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy
Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.
Moral Development and
Conceptions of Fairness: Damon
• Five to seven year old children believe that
equality is the only fair way to divvy up
valued rewards, and they will argue their
point.
– No mitigating circumstances for them
• For ages 8 and above, ideas of merit and
need enter into children’s moral reasoning.
– They start to take into account all the factors
involved in order to ensure a fair outcome in
each situations — a case by case decision.
Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy
Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.
Reasoning and Actual Behavior
• How does the thinking of young children about fairness
correspond to their behavior in the real world?
• Damon did a study where six-year-old and ten-year-old
children were asked to divide candy bars given to their
group as ¨payment¨ for making bracelets.
– Six-year-olds insisted that fairness meant each
person should get the same number of candy bars.
– Older children were better able to adjust the outcome
to fit the students’ abilities and the contributions
made by each group member.
• In 50 % of the cases, children’s behavior matched their
concept level in the simulated situations.
• In 10 % of the cases, behavior was on a higher level.
• In 40 % of the cases, it was on a lower level. Real candy
made a real difference.
Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy
Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.
Affective Developmentalists
Grade Clusters
Shown Below
Erikson Havighurst
Knowles
Infants
Trust,
Openness, Hope
Global Empathy
Toddlers
Autonomy
(Independence), Will
Affective Empathy
Naturally & NonSelectively
Prosocial
Preschool
Initiative,
Imagining, Purpose
Guilt for
Uncontrolled
Aggression
Shame & Guilt
Dawn of
Conscience
Early
Elementary
Conscience
Inner Moral Guide
Perspective Taking
Late
Elementary
Industry,
Competence, Skill
or the Cognitive
Component of Empathy;
Guilt for
Irresponsibility
Authoritarian
Conscience
Middle
School
Identity Formation
Anxiety
(Consolidation of
Roles,
Identifications, and
Personal
Characteristics)
Related to Inconsistency
Between Beliefs
and Actions
(exact point of
emergence not clear)
High
School
Hoffman
Kagan
Hay
Havighurst
Rational
Conscience
Complete Set of
Moral
Principles
No
Information
Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©
Affective Development
Havighurst
Infants
Age 0-1
Toddlers
Age 2-3
Preschool
Early Childhood 4-5
Early
Elementary
Middle
Childhood
Late
Elementary
Late
Childhood
Middle School
Early
Adolescence
High School
Late
Adolescence
Erikson
Hoffman Kagan
Need to become
Global Empathy
Trusting,
open, and
no information
discomfort at
Hopeful or will be
fearful throughout life another's distress
Need to become
Self-Regulatory
Independent,
and
no information
Empathy
Willful or be selffeelings of concern that
doubting
limit aggression
Beginning of moral Need to take Initiative Moral feeling of guilt
responsibility; the and Imagine or may
presumably extant
be
cruel
and
critical
Dawn of
with uncontrolled
throughout life
Conscience
aggression
Authoritarian
Conscience:
voice of parent taken
in as a moral guide via
love & discipline
Rational
Conscience:
through cooperation
with peers and an
understanding of rules
Complete Set
of Moral
Principles
no information
Move from a need
for initiative to need
for Industry, Skill,
and competence
Perspective Taking
the cognitive component
of empathy combines
with affective component that is present
at birth; guilt and
Need to be Competent or do
self-scorn
related to
things well or they will feel
irresponsibility and
inferior and be unable to
over-indulgence are
work well with others
presumably experienced
Need to form an
Identity or consolidate
roles, identifications, and
characteristics or will be
insecure, compulsive, or
even deviant; tend to be
clannish and preoccupied
with how they are
perceived by peers.
Moral emotion of
Anxiety related to
inconsistency
between beliefs and
actions presumably
emerges sometime
after late childhood
or during adolescence
Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©
Hay
Natural
nonselective
prosocial
Selman / Damon
no information
no information
tendency
Emotions
of shame
and guilt
Can’t distinguish their
perspective from that of
others; know self in
terms of unrelated
surface characteristics
Prosocial
behavior
becomes
more
selective
and
declines
Know people have different
viewpoints but can take
only one at a time and favor
their own; understand self
in terms of comparisons
no
information
no
information
Better understanding of
different viewpoints and
know they can have
more than one plus
mixed feelings; self the
same
Step outside situation and
see as complex; have thirdparty view of self, others,
and relationships; know
self in terms of effects on
others
Understand self in terms
of personal philosophy &
plan for the future
Juxtaposition of
Relevant
Developmental Theories
(part 2 is on the next slide)
Preschool
Early Childhood
Kindergarten
Pre-Kindergarten
Early Elementary
Middle Childhood
First and Second
Grades
Late Elementary
Late Childhood
Grades
Three Through Five
Middle School
Early Adolescence
Grades
Six Through Eight
High School
Late Adolescence
Grades
Nine Through Twelve
Piaget on
Cognitive
Development
Piaget
on Moral
Development
Kohlberg
on Moral
Development
● They can’t decenter or take the
perspective of others but are imitative.
● They can sense and perceive but not
symbolically manipulate.
● They cannot comprehend classes and
subclasses.
● They cannot relate to adults’ abstract
reasoning.
● They can’t reflect on or think about their
own thinking.
● They assume you know what they know.
● They are subject to the morality of
constraint.
● They exhibit social play but do not try to
win.
● Justice is viewed as that commanded by
authority.
● Casual attitude about rules.
● Authority maintains egocentrism.
● Egocentrism a step between the solitary
play of younger children and the social
play of children six and older.
● They display heteronomous or adultdependent morality.
● They think in absolutes of right and
wrong.
● They have an egocentric viewpoint.
● They are good to avoid
punishment or gain rewards.
● They view the value of life the way they
do the value of objects.
Concrete Operations
● They display instrumental cooperation.
● They are largely subject to the morality
of constraint.
● They want to win by age seven but have
a vague notion of game rules.
● They view rules as sacred and
unchangeable.
● They view justice as that which is
commanded by authority.
● They see right as that which satisfies
their needs.
● They have a concrete, pleasure/ rewardseeking, individualistic perspective.
● Their cooperation is instrumental, and
they exchange favors to satisfy needs.
● The value of life is viewed as
instrumental to need satisfaction.
● They are in transition between
heteronomy and moral autonomy.
● They come to know codified game rules
and show an intense interest in them.
● They continue to view rules as
unchangeable.
● They view justice in terms of equality that
comes about from solidarity and mutual
respect.
● They view right as what gains approval.
● They have an interpersonal, Golden
Rule, good-child/bad-child perspective.
● They gain approval by being caring and
accommodating toward significant
others.
● They view the value of life in terms of
affectional bonds.
● They have principled moral autonomy,
morality emerging from cooperation.
● Their rule mastery and codification of
game rules, that began at about age
ten, continues.
● They view justice as equity,not equality.
● Rules are viewed as a changeable
product of mutual consent.
● They view right as doing one's duty,
showing respect to authority, and maintaining social order.
● They have an organizational-need,
societal-need, law-maintaining view.
● They view life as sacred within the
context of a scheme or moral rights.
● They move from perceptual or preoperational to conceptual or concreteoperational thought, i.e., they begin to
solve problems in their heads because
they can manipulate objects
symbolically.
● They cannot imagine events that are
not real events, need real things to
think about, and cannot think
abstractly.
● They can take the perspective of
others.
● They are becoming more and more
interested in their peers.
● They willfully engage in social
cooperation.
Formal Operations
● They move from concrete operational
to formal-operational thought, think
logically and abstractly, and begin to
manipulate
symbols in their heads. They can
imagine hypothetical as well as real
events.
● They can introspect, reflect, and think
about their own thinking.
● They can consider many view-points
and take the perspective of others fully.
● They are much more self-conscious
than they were previously.
(Preconventional 1)
(Preconventional 2)
(Conventional 3)
(Conventional 4)
(Post-conventional)
unexplained
Developed by Gordon Vessels 1998 ©
● They view right as guarding basic
rights and legal contracts, or as
meeting mutual obligations in context
of societal rights and standards.
● They have a law-creating, moral-legal
view that obligates them to honor social
commitments.
● Principled moral reasoning.
Selman &
Youniss on
Friendship
Development
Damon on
Moral
Development
(Level 1)
● 0-A: (4 years old): They make no
attempt to justify choices and feel they
should get more because they want
more. They distort adult orders to fit
their wishes.
● 0-B: (5 years old): They justify choices
in a selfish, after-the-fact way and view
authority only as a block to satisfying
their own desires.
● Children have an egocentric understanding of friendship that involves
sharing toys and enjoyable activities
with incidental playmates. They are
becoming more selective and selfish
with their prosocial behavior. They
can’t distinguish between their own
perspective and that of others.
(Level 1)
● Friendship is defined by uneven-handed
reciprocity that derives from a
subjective, unilateral, or one-way social
perspective. Friends begin to realize that
feelings and intentions and not just
actions keep them together. They know
others have a different perspective but
can focus only on one.
(Level 2)
● Friendship is defined by two-way,
cooperative, even-handed reciprocity.
Fair- weather friendships may not
withstand conflicts. They can self reflect
and realizethat people have an outer and
inner self. They realize that people have
varying viewpoints and are awareof their
own mixed feelings.
(Level 3)
● Friendship is defined by mutual and
exclusive trust, loyalty, and intimacy that
involves sharing inner-most feelings with
a trusted few. It is built on the ability to
take a third-party view of self, others,
and relationships, i.e., they can step
outside a social situation and view its
complexities.
(Egalitarianism)
(Havighurst/Hoffman)
● They internalize adult standards and
the voice of parent(s) as a result of love
and empathy-mediating inductions that
connect actions with felt affects.
(Equity/Benevolence)
● 2-A: They view fairness as a right of all,
and they view leaders with knowledge
as more legitimate.
● 2-B: They view justice (by age 10) as
context dependent and can make
reasoned decisions based on claims
and conditions, but their perspective is
limited to the situation.
(General)
● Self-understanding is based on social
and personality traits rather than the
abilities of childhood or the beliefs of late
adolescence.
● Will gain ability to view situations that
involve disparate claims to justice from a
wider perspective than the situation and
can apply moral principles.
● Self understanding or self-concept is
based on beliefs, philosophies, and
thoughts rather than personality qualities
as was the case in early adolescence.
Developed by Gordon Vessels 1998 ©
Juxtaposition of
Relevant
Developmental Theories
(part 1 is on previous slide)
(Erikson/Hoffman)
● They must take initiative and will
experience much guilt and fail to
realize their potential if they fail.
● They are at the “dawn of conscience”
but have not internalized adult
standards.
● They have affectively empathetic
feelings that limit aggression and
enable social and moral growth.
● 1-A: They view fairness as equality.
Authority is confused with the power to
enforce.
● 1-B: They view fairness in terms of
merit and reciprocal obligation.
Fairness takes on value in its own right.
Children see obedience as legitimate
trade for adult favors and help.
(Level 4)
● Friendship is defined by autonomous
inter dependence whereby friends are
close and intimate yet grant eachother
the independence to establish other
close friendships. Words, glances, and
gestures can have deeper shared
meanings that
are unknown to others.
Erikson, Hoffman, &
Havighurst on
Moral-Affective
Development
(Erikson)
● They must gain a sense of competence
and will feel inferior and have
relationship problems if they fail.
Preschool
Early Childhood
Kindergarten
Pre-Kindergarten
Early Elementary
Middle Childhood
First and Second
Grades
(Havighurst)
● A rational conscience replaces the
authoritarian conscience via peer-group
identification, peer cooperation, and an
understanding of the function of rules.
(Hoffman)
● Feel guilty for violating internalized
abstract moral rules and can take the
perspective of others.
(Havighurst/Hoffman)
● They begin to form a complete set of
moral principles that they use to judge
self and others.
(Erikson)
● They seek to consolidate their roles
and identifications into an identity.
● They tend to over-identify with
individuals and groups and tend to be
clannish and intolerant.
● They are driven by a concern for how
they are perceived by their peers.
● The resolution of this crisis allows for
growth in terms of moral development
and the capacity for sexual intimacy.
● Failure can be due to unresolved
earlier crises or the failure to commit to
an ideology and way of life.
Late Elementary
Late Childhood
Grades
Three Through Five
Middle School
Early Adolescence
Grades
Six Through Eight
High School
Late Adolescence
Grades
Nine Through Twelve
Friendship / Self / Perspective Taking
Youniss
Children's
Friendship Stories
3-6
6
6-8
8
6 year old children
tell stories about
sharing toys and
play activities
no stories gathered
8-10
10
10-13
13
13-18
18
18-25
10 year old children
tell stories about
playing and sharing
play activities
13 year old children
tell stories about
assisting each other
Damon
Selman
Friends Are . . .
Friendship Is . . .
those who live nearby;
those with whom they
are playing; those whose
toys they want
subjectivity and unevenhanded reciprocity; know
feelings, not just activities,
keep them together
more cooperative, evenhanded reciprocity; fairweather friendships don't
withstand conflict
mutual understanding and
exclusive trust replaces
reciprocal interest; friendships withstand conflicts
autonomous interdependence: close and intimate
18 year old adolescents friends grant each other the
right to have other friends
tell stories about
sharing private
thoughts and feelings
Perspective Taking Ability
cannot distinguish
their own perspective
from that of others
recognize others may have
different viewpoints but can
consider only one at a time
and favor their own; a
one-way social perspective
have a better understanding
of peoples’ different viewpoints and know they can
have more than one or mixed
feelings; two-way perspective
can step outside a situation
and view its complexities
and have a third-party
perspective on self, others,
and relationships
self-concept and
view of self
understand self in
terms of unrelated
surface
characteristics
understand self in
terms of comparisons
with others,
particularly peers
same as above
understand self in
terms of effects on
others of personal
characteristics
understand others in
terms of personal
philosophy and plans
for the future
Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©