Anatomy of groups
dr. hab. Jerzy Supernat
Institute of Administrative Studies
University of Wrocław
Anatomy of groups
George Caspar Homans (1910-1989) in the book Human
Group published in 1950:
We mean by a group a number of persons who
communicate with one another often over a span
of time, and who are few enough so that each
person is able to communicate with all others, not
at secondhand, through other people, but face-toface.
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
David J. Lawless:
[…] a group (sometimes called a psychological
group) consists of two or more persons interacting. This interaction requires that the behavior of
each member influences the behavior of each
other member and that the members share some
common perceptions, beliefs, values, and objectives.
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Tres faciunt collegium.
Omne trinum perfectum.
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
E. Frank Harrison:
The most important characteristics of a group:
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interpersonal consensus
interaction among the members
communication among the members
common interest
proximity or nearness in place or location
norms or informal rules that guide the behavior of
members
 structure

dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
E. Frank Harrison:
[…] the profile of a group shows a number of individuals who come together. Through close interaction
and openness of communication they seek interpersonal consensus. And they assume membership roles,
subject to informal rules and guidelines for acceptable conduct, that will ensure the attainment of the
group’s common purpose.
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Theories of group behavior
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Homan’s system theory
According to Homans the behavior of members of a group
must be considered as a system of behavior, not as
separate actions unrelated to each other (a change in one
behavior will lead to a change in others). The elementary
forms of behavior are:
 activities (the things people do with human or nonhuman objects)
 interactions (special kind of activity directed toward
another person and taking the other person’s reaction
or reciprocal behavior into account)
 sentiments (refer to feelings, attitudes, or beliefs)
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Blau’s theory of social integration
This theory explains why and how individuals become
accepted as members of groups. According to Peter M. Blau
integration depends on both attractiveness and approachability:
 attractiveness: a prospective new member must impress
the group with good personal qualities
 approachability: a prospective new member must demonstrate personal approachability with well-chosen modesty.
Nota bene a prospect perceived by the group as too attractive, may
be assessed as unapproachable and a threat to the established
relations among the members, and – in consequence – not accepted.
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Peter M. Blau (1918-2002)
Anatomy of groups
Kelmans’s theory of social influence
Herbert C. Kelman has described how a group exerts
social influence on the individual members. He found three
processes of influence that operate in group relations:
 compliance (the process can be observed in peer
groups)
 identification (identification can be exemplified by the
influence that authority figures exert over their admirers or supporters)
 internalization (internalization may be the kind of influence that doctors exert over their patients)
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Herbert C. Kelman
Anatomy of groups
Lewin’s theory of group dynamics (field theory)
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947): […] a group has life space, it occupies a
position relative to other objects in this life space; it is oriented
toward goals; it locomotes in pursuit of these goals; and it may
encounter barriers in the process of locomotion.
Field theorists are especially concerned with cohesion or the forces that bind
members of a group to each other and to group as a whole. These forces
include:
the satisfaction that members obtain from being in a group
 the degree of closeness and warmth the members of a group feel for each
other
 the pride felt by the members as a result of their membership in a group
 the ability of the members to meet emergencies and crises that confront
them as a group
 the willingness of the members of the group to be frank and honest in their
expression of ideas and feelings
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dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
The house in Mogilno in kujawsko-pomorski
region, in which Kurt Lewin was born.
A part of commemorative plaque
fixed to this house.
A successful individual typically sets his next goal somewhat but
not too much above his last achievement. In this way he steadily
raises his level of aspiration.
Kurt Lewin
Anatomy of groups
Bale’s theory of group behavior
Robert F. Bale (1916-2004) has offered a valuable tool for analyzing group
behavior. In his analytical scheme he especially considers four main problems
that confront a group :
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adaptation to factors outside the group that influence the group, such as
the need to consider the objectives of the larger organizartion of which
the group is a part
instrumental control over those things in the group that are relevant to
performing its tasks, such as dividing the work or making decisions
the expression and management of feelings of the members, such as
showing pleasure or dissatisfaction and relieving personal or
interpersonal tensions
the development and maintenance of integration of the members with
each other and of the group as a whole
The problems of adaptation and instrumental control are handled primarily by the
expression of question and answers. The problems of the expression and management
of feelings and the development and maintenance of integration are dealt with largely
by the expression of positive and negative reactions.
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Jackson two-dimensional theory of membership
According to Jay M. Jackson group membership may be based
on attraction (the force that leads an individual to join and
remain in a group) or on acceptance (the degree to which an
individual’s ability and behavior will fit the roles defined in a
group).
Consequently there are four types of membership:
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psychological membership (positive attraction to membership and
full acceptance)
preferential membership (positive attraction to membership and
minimal acceptance)
marginal membership (little or no attraction to membership and
full acceptance)
alienative membership (negative attraction to membership and
negative acceptance)
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Group norms and conformity
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
G.C. Homans
A norm is an idea in the minds of a group’s members that
can be stated to specify what the members are expected
to do under given circumstances.
The members’ social standing in the group depends largely
upon their compliance with established norms:
 noncorformity is punished
 conformity is reworded
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Conformity is secured by at least three social processes:
 enforcement of group norms (education, surveillance, warning,
disciplinary actions, rewarding actions)
 internalization of group norms (norms set by a group become
personal standards of conduct that the member feels are right)
 (real or imagined) social pressure (there are three principal
elements that determine the influence of such pressure on the
inividual: the existence of allies, the setting for the group
pressure, and the personality of the member)
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Individuals with independent
personalities
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they may be quite confident that their
perceptions are correct (even though
they know they are different from the
group, they may still persist firmly in
their opinions)
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they often tend to be withdrawn from
the group (they may be conspicuous
for rigidly adhering to the principles of
individuality, rather than vigorously
claiming the accuracy of their
perceptions)
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they may feel a lot of tension and
uncertainty about the differences in
their perceptions, but still stick to their
opinions because they honestly believe
them necessary to get the job done
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Submissive individuals
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they may actually distort
their perceptions and see
the majority choices as
the correct ones
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they may doubt the
validity of their perception
and demonstrate a lack of
confidence in their own
confidence
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they may perceive the
situation quite accurately,
but still go along with the
majority because it is too
uncomfortable to be
different
Anatomy of groups
Group structure
 types of groups:
a formal group (D.J. Lawless: formal groups are those set up with
relatively clear and official roles for members, rules for interactions, and goals
for achievement; they reflect the psychological and administrative
assumptions of those who designed them) and an informal group (B.J.
Kolasa: informal groups are those unplanned sets of subgroups, friendship
relations, and other informal relationships which inevitably develop when a
number of people are placed in necessary contact with one another)
 a membership group (one in which a person actually belongs) and a
reference group (one that a person indentifies with or would like to belong
to)
 a primary group (individuals in a close, face-to-face relationship for a fairly
long time) and a secondary group (the relationships are more general and
remote)
 team (actually there is no significant difference between an effective group
and a team)
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relationships within the group; sociometry
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Sociometry identifies and measures relationships within
groups. According to Jacob Levy Moreno (1889-1974)
sociometry is the mathematical study of psychological
properties of populations, the experimental technique
of and the results obtained by application of quantitative methods.
Sociometry is based on the fact that people make choices. According
to J.L. Moreno: Choices are fundamental facts in all ongoing human
relations, choices of people and choices of things. It is immaterial
whether the motivations are known to the chooser or not; it is immaterial whether [the choices] are inarticulate or highly expressive,
whether rational or irrational. They do not require any special justification as long as they are spontaneous and true to the self of the
chooser. They are facts of the first existential order.
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Group communication
E. Frank Harrison:
It is essential to a group’s effectiveness
that there be a consensus among its
members. Consensus results from
interaction, which in turn is the product
of open communication. Therefore, it is
obvious that group effectiveness is
directly or indirectly dependent upon
open communication.
In this context, communication can be
defined as the means (any means) by
which information (of any type) is
transmitted among the members of
a group.
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Communication networks
wheel network
circle network
chain network
Y network
completely
connected network
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Effective group
attains the organizational
goals that gave rise to the
group’s formation

satisfies the needs of the
group members
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Anatomy of groups
Characteristics of effective group (according to Douglas McGregor, 1906-1964):
the atmosphere tends to be informal, comfortable, and relaxed
 there is a lot of discussion in which nearly everyone participates, but the discussion
stays relevant to the task
 the objectives are very well understood and accepted by all members of the group
 the members listen to each other; every idea is given a hearing; no one is afraid of
being considered foolish by putting forward even extreme ideas
 there are disagreements, for disagreements are not overridden; the reasons for
disagreements are examined, and there is an attempt to resolve them rather than
suppress them
 most decisions are reached by some form of consensus in which there is a general
willingness to accept the decision; the group does not trust formal voting with a simple
majority as the basis for the best action
 criticism is frequent and frank but comfortable and shows little evidence of personal
attack
 members feel free to express their feelings as well as their ideas not only on the
decision to be made but also on the group’s operation
 assignments to members are clear and accepted
 the group leader does not dominate, nor is there evidence of power struggle while
the group works to achieve its task
 the group is self-conscious about its own operations

dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Groupthink
Irving L. Janis (1918-1990):
Groupthink occurs when a group makes faulty decisions because group pressures lead to a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and
moral judgment.
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Doublethink means the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in
one's mind simultaneously, and accepting both of them.
George Orwell
An excellent example of doublethink in modern society is the war on drugs. If you ask people their
opinion on alcohol prohibition in the 1920s, most people would agree that it was a complete failure.
People agree that it only caused more crime, it made gangsters rich, it corrupted politicians, and most
importantly... it didn't keep people from drinking. Yet, we have almost the exact same situation today
with war on drugs, yet most people think that our modern prohibition is a good idea... and more than
that, they believe that anybody that thinks that the war on drugs isn't a good idea must be completely
out of their minds.
Newspeak Dictionary
Anatomy of groups
Symptoms of groupthink according to I.L. Janis:
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Illusion of invulnerability – Creates excessive optimism that encourages
taking extreme risks.
Collective rationalization – Members discount warnings and do not
reconsider their assumptions.
Belief in inherent morality – Members believe in the rightness of their
cause and therefore ignore the ethical or moral consequences of their
decisions.
Stereotyped views of out-groups – Negative views of ‘enemy’ make
effective responses to conflict seem unnecessary.
Direct pressure on dissenters – Members are under pressure not to
express arguments against any of the group’s views.
Self-censorship – Doubts and deviations from the perceived group
consensus are not expressed.
Illusion of unanimity – The majority view and judgments are assumed to
be unanimous.
Self-appointed ‘mindguards’ – Members protect the group and the leader
from information that is problematic or contradictory to the group’s
cohesiveness, view, and/or decisions.
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Anatomy of groups
Groupthink
and
the decision about the outbreak of the Warsaw Uprising
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat
Concluding remark
There are basically two types of people. People who accomplish things, and people who claim to have accomplished things. The first group is less crowded.
Mark Twain
dr hab. Jerzy Supernat