Schema Theory. Nonconscious
Influences on Economic Behaviour
W. Fred van Raaij
Economic Psychology
Moscow, Russia: ICABEEP Conference
September 2010
Agenda
Agenda of this presentation:
• Relevance of the unconscious
• Two systems?
• Unconscious learning and skills
• Direct elicitation of schemata and emotions
• Word and number priming
• Fluency processes
• Basic motivations
• Biases
• Heuristics
• Role of the conscious processes
• Brain processes
• Measuring the nonconscious/implicit
Low-involvement learning
Low-involvement learning is explicit learning without conscious awareness or
activity to memorize information.
Situation of low motivation and interest (e.g., peripheral route in the ELM model),
when watching TV commercials. Few or no cognitive responses or cognitive
defences.
Situations of information overload, and no possibility to process all information.
Nevertheless, some learning effects occur after many
exposures.
TV is less suited for complex messages and argumentation.
Low involvement learning is more common than high
involvement learning.
Herbert Krugman,
General Electric
Nonconscious influences on behaviour
Historical developments:
Philosophers
Augustine of Hippo (354-430)
René Descartes (1596-1650): ‘Les Passions de l’Âme’.
Baruch de Spinoza (1632-1677): Ethica
Psychologists
Willam James (1890)
Joseph Jastrow (1906)
Sigmund Freud (1915): unconscious, Vorbewuβte, conscious
Discussion on the ‘free will’
Baruch de Spinoza: pantheism (God = Nature), laws of nature, deterministic
causality, no ‘free will’.
Three levels of learning and development:
1. Body contagion and experiences of pleasure/pain (slavery).
2. Learning and insights through generalization.
3. Intuitive learning and insights (mastery).
Psychologists
Humanistic psychology: self-efficacy (Bandura), hierrachy of needs (Maslow)
Timothy Wilson (2002), illusion of introspection
Daniel Wegner (2002), illusion of free will
Relevance of nonconscious processes
95% of our brain activity is nonconscious activity (without conscious awareness
and guidance).
Regulation of somatic activities: blood circulation, digestion, respiration.
Regulation of physical behaviour in space: navigation, eye-hand coordination,
effort regulation.
Regulation of memory: encoding and retrieval, recognition, recall.
Regulation of basic learning and classical/operant conditioning.
Regulation of skill and habit formation (car driving, piano playing).
Different brain processes for learning the habit than for executing the learned
habit (Langer & Imber, 1979; Lieberman et al, 2002)
Regulation of ‘automatic’ emotions as responses to provoking stimuli.
Regulation of ‘implicit’ judgment, preference and choice.
→ Nonconscious activity mainly for the perception of stimuli and the execution
of behavior.
Two systems
Zajonc: mere exposure (1968), cognitive and emotional system. This is too simple;
note that there exist conscious and nonconscious cognitions and emotions.
Kahneman (2003): system 1 (nonconscious) and system 2 (conscious).
Two separate systems are, however, rather unlikely. Both systems have functional
specializations and there must be interactions between both systems.
John Bargh, Ap Dijksterhuis, …
Comparison of these two systems.
Conscious and nonconscious system
Nonconscious system (1)
Conscious sytem (2)
•Multiple systems
•Online pattern detector
•Concerned with the here & now
•Automatic: fast, unintentional,
uncontrollable, effortless
•Parallel processes
•Many at the same time
•No capacity constraints
•Rigid
•Precocious
•Sensitive to negative information
•Single system
•After the fact check & balancer
•Taking the long view
•Controlled: slow, intentional,
controllable, effortful
•Serial processes
•One at a time
•Capacity constraints
•Flexible
•Slower to develop
•Sensitive to positive information
Nonconscious processes
1. Reflexes and conditioning.
2. Skill acquisition: automatic behaviour after training and experience (car driving,
violin playing).
3. Automatic encoding and activation of schemata (stereotypes, goals) if the relevant
stimulus is present.
4. Ideomotoric action: mimicry of others’ behaviour and doing the behaviour yourself
(modelling; mirror neurons).
5. The same brain area for perception, simulation and acting a particular behavior.
Internal:
Conscious thoughts
about the behaviour
Behaviour-relevant
cognitive activity
External:
Mere perception of
others’ behaviour
Behaviour
(Un)intentional routes
Intentional and unintentional routes to automatization
1. Goal/intention to acquire skill (button your shirt, golf, piano plying).
2. Repeatedly making the same choice in situations (unintentional).
(Bargh & Chartrand, 1999)
Intentional:
Goal to acquire
skill
Unintentional:
Repeatedly making
the same choice
Frequent and
consistent use of the
same mental
processes
Removal of
conscious role in
the process
(automatization)
Intentional mediation of goal pursuit
Intentional mediation (conscious choice) needed in a training/learning process of
skill. The conscious process can be phased out later in the process. The
conscious process may even deteriorate the process when moved in again.
Schema (goal, stereotype) activation.
Situation:
Stimuli in the
environment
Goal activation
Goal operation
Goal activation
Goal operation
Conscious
choice
Situation:
Stimuli in the
environment
Conscious
choice
Development of emotions
After a learning phase, provoking stimuli in the environment may directly elicit
emotional responses and corresponding/congruent behaviours.
Automatic evaluation and emotion activation. ‘Thin slices’ (Ambady &
Rosenthal, 1992) are sufficient.
Internal stimuli (pain) may also directly elicit emotions.
Provoking
stimuli in the
environment
Emotional
response
Corresponding
behaviour
Emotional
response
Corresponding
behaviour
Conscious
evaluation
of stimulus
Provoking
stimuli in the
environment
Conscious
evaluation
of stimulus
Schema theory
Stimuli in the environment trigger schemas, and schemas guide/filter perception
of the environment. Schemas may elicit/direct behaviours at the nonconscious
level. The conscious level gets involved if there are conflicts between
unconscious ‘departments’/areas of the brain or if there is communication/
reflection needed about the behaviour.
Note the continuity of
conscious and
nonconscious content of
schemas and processes in
the brain. The Vorbewuβte
is a (Freudian) in-between
both.
Stimuli in the
environment
Conscious
Vorbewußte
Unconscious
Experience
Corresponding
behaviour
Schemas and scripts
Schemas are association networks (connections) in (non)conscious memory:
cognitions, stereotypes, emotions, goal pursuits, expectations.
Scripts are behavioural sequences networks in (non)conscious memory: simulation
of events and behavior, rehearsal of experiences, counterfactual thinking,
(day)dreaming.
Memory traces are perceptual or conceptual memory residues at a nonconscious
level.
Word priming
John Bargh
Concept priming effect (Bargh, 2002):
1. Participants are given a ‘priming task’ (word sort; sentence formation) with words
of a certain meaning, e.g., utilitarian (in the other condition: hedonic) adjectives.
In this way, utilitarian (hedonic) schemas (goal pursuits) are activated without
awareness. Priming may be done sub- or supraliminally.
2. Filler task.
3. At a later, seemingly unrelated test, participants select more utilitarian (hedonic)
products. Automatic goal pursuit. Implicit effect on attitude and on behavior.
Priming causes a nonconscious activation of a schema (goals pursuit, stereotype,
associations). This schema triggers the relevant and/or corresponding behaviors.
Number priming
Number priming effect (Stephan, 2005) in a study for the Süddeutsche Klassenloterie:
1. In a telephone call, prospects were asked whether a lottery ticket of the
Süddeutsche Klassenloterie is more or is less expensive than € 30 (in the other
condition: € 60).
2. Then, the actual price of a lottery ticket (€ 45) is mentioned.
3. Willingness to buy a lottery ticket was significantly higher in the € 60 condition
than in the € 30 condition.
Nonconscious activation of a the schema of a low vs. a high price. If a high price is
activated, the actual price is perceived as a gain and thus becomes more attractive.
Even an irrelevant prime (just a high or low number) activates a schema of high and
low prices.
The order of presentation, e.g., starting with expensive products, may influence the
selection of an option.
Processing fluency 1
Chris Janiszewski
Prior exposure to stimuli without awareness (recognition, recall) seems to leave
memory traces and facilitates encoding and processing of the stimulus at a later
time (Bornstein & d’Agostino, 1992).
This is called processing fluency. People (mis)attribute ease of processing to a positive
affect (liking). It plays a role in preference, decision making and choice (Schacter
& Badgaiyan, 2001; Janiszewski & Meyvis 2001).
Perceptual fluency: exposure creates a schema of a feature-based (form)
representation, facilitating encoding and processing at a later time.
Conceptual fluency: exposure creates a schema of a meaning-based (content)
representation facilitating encoding and processing at a later time.
Processing fluency 2
Dual-process theory (Groves & Thompson, 1970) explains the fluency effect.
Sensitization: excitatory response during initial exposures, declining with later
exposures, based on:
• stimulus intensity: high-contrast and complex stimuli are more stimulating and
sensitizing.
• stimulus relevance: functionally relevant stimuli are more stimulating.
Habituation: inhibitory response, increasing at a marginally decreasing rate with
additional exposure, based on:
• stimulus intensity: less intense stimuli create stronger and more rapid habituation.
• exposure interval/spacing: massed exposures increase habituation.
• exposure duration: longer exposure durations increase habituation.
Chaiken & Trope (1999), dual-process theory in social psychology.
Recapitulation
First occasion
A
B
Perceptual fluency
False fame
Second occasion
Relearning
PAR
A
(same stimuli)
Effects:
Liking
Fame
Ease of learning
Biased processing
B
C
C
D
D
Conceptual fluency
Concept priming
(stimulus generalization)
Effects:
Liking
Motivation
Goal pursuit
Behavior
Critique of conscious thought
Criticisms of conscious thought in the literature are (Baumeister & Masicampo,
2010) :
1. Introspection may be wrong (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977); invention of false
explanations of own behaviour, from a stock pile of socially-acceptable
explanations.
2. False information to integrate and complement information about the world.
3. Conscious thought may be too slow to guide behaviour (Kornhuber & Deecke,
1965; Libet, Gleason, Wright, & Pearl, 1983; Libet, 1999).
4. Conscious thought is not needed for the initiation of action (Bargh & Chartrand,
1999).
5. Conscious thought attributes too much behaviour to self initiation, rather than to
environmental stimuli causing automatic behaviour (attribution error; Wegner,
2002).
→ Is conscious thought of any use/function to us?
Roles of conscious thought
Conscious thought enables humans to coordinate with their social and cultural
environment (Baumeister & Masicampo, 2010):
1. Mental crosstalk: Problem of connecting incoming stimulus with relevant brain
sites. The incoming stimulus becomes a broadcast signal to brain sites. If brain
sites differ in the course of action to be taken, the conscious will (try to) resolve
the conflict.
2. Social communication: People can discuss only conscious schemas and thoughts
with each other. Conscious thought may be silent speech (Vygotsky, 1962;
Skinner, 1953).
mirror neurons → arm movements → communication by gesture → vocal
speech.
3. Cultural participation and communication to test personal opinions, values and
norms. Empathy and trust in others.
4. Sequential simulation: sentences of words, meaningful sequences of thought,
narratives, scripts (replaying experiences, counterfactual thinking, logical and
moral reasoning) are in the conscious domain. Simulations affect the same brain
area as actual perceptions and actions.
Schema theory: role of conscious thought
Conscious thought plays a role in gradually changing schemas for future perceptions
and behaviors. Conscious thought is long-term oriented about important values,
norms, identity, self-presentation, social acceptance, and lifestyle. Conscious
thought is not to introspect and to direct ongoing behavior, but to give
explanation, meaning, and perspective to ongoing behavior, to learn from
behavior, and to communicate with others.
Conscious thought:
Conscious
Mental crosstalk
Social communication
Vorbewußte
Cultural participation
Sequential simulation
Unconscious
Experience
Schema theory: three functions of schemas
1.
2.
3.
A schema /script is a nonconscious filter and bias on the
perception of reality (the outside world).
A schema/script gives nonconsciously (automatic) direction
to ongoing behavior.
A schema /script is a conscious reflection of behavior to
provide meaning and justification of one’s own behavior.
There are thus two/three functions of emotions, expectations,
goal pursuits, etc.
The nonconscious emotion plays a role in perception and
behavior (liking, specific emotions). The conscious emotion
is a reflection of experiences and behavior.
The nonconscious expectation plays a role in perception (Gestalt)
and behavior. The conscious expectation is a reflection of
past experiences and a standard for evaluation and thus for
satisfaction (Oliver, 1997).
Experience
Basic goal pursuits
Basic human motivations and schemas (goal pursuits) (survival, Spinoza):
1. Improve personal conditions (gain, mastery, security).
2. Avoid negative developments (loss aversion, danger).
3. Improve social conditions (love, status, recognition).
These three basic and often nonconscious goal pursuits influence and ‘colour’ (bias)
our judgments, preferences, risk taking, decisions, and choices.
These three basic goal pursuits explain some of our biases and heuristics. These
biases and heuristics may be conscious or nonconscious.
Biases 1
Biases and anomalies in making correct estimates of frequencies and probabilities
(Tversky & Kahneman, 1974):
1. Availability. The frequency or probability of an event will be estimated from the
cases that can be brought to mind.
2. Representativeness. The frequency/probability that object A belongs to class B
estimated from the degree to which A is representative for or similar to B.
3. Anchoring & adjustment. The initial/known value (anchor) is the base for
estimation. Adjustment is often in the right direction but insufficient.
These three biases to estimate numbers of probabilities are based on a restricted
cognitive schema and observation of reality.
Biases 2
Other biases and anomalies are based on loss aversion (prospect theory, Kahneman
& Tversky, 1979):
1. Endowment effect. The tendency to ask a higher price for selling a good (WTA)
than the price one is willing to pay (WTP) (Knetsch, 1989; Kahneman, Knetsch
& Thaler, 1990, 1991).
2. Status-quo bias. The tendency to remain at the present option, because the
disadvantages of leaving the present option loom larger than the advantages of
doing so (Samuelson & Zeckhauser, 1988).
3. Sunk-costs effect. An investment (even theatre tickets) has to be earned back
before the mental account can be closed (Arkes & Blumer, 1985). People are
unwilling to close an account with a loss.
4. Disposition effect. Selling winning stocks too early and selling loosing stocks
too late. People are unwilling to sell their stocks with a loss and thus admitting a
mistake. They rather take the risk to keep their loosing stock for a better time.
These four biases are based on the negative schema /connotations of loss aversion:
selling possessions, changing the status-quo, giving up an investment, and
selling stocks at a loss. People rather take more risk to avoid a loss.
Heuristics
Heuristics are simple and flexible (fast & frugal, Gigerenzer, 2007) tactics and
decision rules of thumb and decision aids:
1. Affect heuristic (Slovic, Finucane, Peters, & MacGregor, 2002). People take
their emotional response as an indicator /proxy of their preference. Emotion may
signal preference (what to do) or danger (what to avoid).
2. Recognition heuristic (Goldstein & Gigerenzer, 2002). People use the
recognition of an option as an indicator /proxy of the value/size/quality of the
option, e.g., recognition of a brand name.
3. Gaze heuristic (in motoric behaviour; Babler & Dannemiller, 1993). Catching a
fly ball by fixing the gaze on the ball, and adjusting the speed of running so that
the angle of gaze remains constant.
4. String heuristic (Gigerenzer, 2007). Ranking the options in a one-dimensional
list and choosing from that ranking.
5. Middle heuristic. In a choice between three or more options people tend to take
the middle option or the one but most expensive option from a ranking.
Heuristics 1, 2 and 3 are based on an approximation schema. Heuristics 4 and 5 are
a simplified decision rule/schema/script.
Brain processes 1
Brain research to find relevant cerebral locations and their functions, and basic brain
processes.
Five main processes:
1. Representation of the problem, relevance, urgency.
2. Valuation system for options (expected value?).
3. Comparison and choice of options/behaviours. Rivalry between functions/desires
(short-term vs. long-term; time discounting).
4. Evaluation of outcome.
5. Learning from experience (loop).
Four parallel/sequential valuation systems:
Brain processes 2
Four parallel or sequential valuation systems in the brain:
1. Pavlovian , rather automatic system; classical and evaluative conditioning.
Stimulus-base responses and generalizations to smell, noise, etc.
2. Habitual, rather automatic system of repetitions and routines; operant
conditioning [dorsolateral part of corpus striatum].
3. Mimicry, imitation, conformism, modelling, social learning (Bandura) [mirror
neurons in premotorical cortex].
4. Goal-directed system, controlled, deliberate (conscious) and flexible [neocortex,
frontal brain; dorsomedial part of corpus striatum].
The first three systems are nonconscious in perception and direction of behaviour .
The fourth system is conscious.
If these four systems agree on options/outcomes/decisions, no problem will arise.
With disagreement, the goal-directed system (neo-cortex) will try to dominate
and control /arbitrage the other systems.
Measuring the nonconscious
Anthony Greenwald
Measurement of nonconscious, implicit processes and evaluations:
• Implicit Attitude Test, reaction speed (Greenwald).
• Go/No Go task (GNAT; Nosek & Banaji, 2001).
• ZMAT, projective test (Zaltman, 2003).
• Evidence from behavioural outcomes (in experiments and in reality).