Instructional Design
The 3 Major Approaches
to Instructional Design
(EDER 673 L.91 )
From Calgary
With
Asst. Professor Eugene G. Kowch
January 23, Seminar Two
(An Asynchronous Meeting using
WebCT discussion Thread
and
WWW Course Home Page Material)
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
1
Advance Organizer for This Week
1. Developing our vocabulary:
Terms and Definitions in Instructional Design
2. A Comparison of the 3 main approaches to Instructional Design /
An Overview to help us understand the main paradigms
3. More detail on Cognitivist Education - A framework for
understanding instruction and theory in design
4. Reading & Assignment for next week’s Vclass session. Prep. For
Student Jigsaw: Anglin
NOTE for New Students: Light Blue Links are “Hot” links:
http://www.ucalgary.ca
(just click on the blue link and - there you go!)
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
2
Organizer
A. First, we’ll look into our new designer
Vocabulary -Questions we’ll answer this week:
1. What is design?
2. What is instructional design?
3. What is instructional design theory?
4. What is technology?
5. What is educational technology?
6. What is instructional technology?
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
3
Organizer
B. Then We’ll Compare
the 3 Main Approaches to Instructional Design
1. Behaviorism
2. Cognitivism the dominant theory base for ID is
cognitivist education (Ch. 3, Reigeluth) 3 Constructivism
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
4
Organizer
C. Then, each student is invited to explore your
preferred approach to Instructional Design,
and think about why you prefer this approach
as a designer.
(This will be the topic of this week’s
discussion thread and readings)
For next week, each student will also be assigned a small topic
to present in next weeks’ Vclass on either:
Current Issues in the field of Educational Technology
Current Trends in the field of Educational Technology
(the assignment is at the end of these pages)
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
5
A. Definitions in the ID Domain
ID
Vocabulary
A.1 What is Design?
•
•
•
Archer wrote that:
“Design is that area of human experience, skill and knowledge which is concerned with
man’s ability to mould his environment to suit his material and spiritual needs.” (Archer, B
(1973) “The Need for Design Education.” Royal College of Art)
“Design is essentially a rational, logical, sequential process intended to solve problems or,
as Jones put it: “initiate change in man-made things” (Jones, J.C. (1970) “Design Methods
and Technology: Seeds of Human Futures)”
For the term “design process,” we can also read “problem-solving process”, which in all but
its abstract forms works by consultation and consensus. The process begins with the
identification and analysis of a problem or need and proceeds through a structured sequence
in which information is researched and ideas explored and evaluated until the optimum
solution to the problem or need is devised.
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
6
A. Definitions in the ID Domain
ID
Vocabulary
A.2 What is Instructional Design?
Instructional Design as a Process:
•
Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning
and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning
needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of
instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities.
Instructional Design as a Discipline:
•
Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about
instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies.
•
Instructional Design as a Science:
•
•
Instructional design is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development,
implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate the learning of both large and
small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity.
Instructional Design as Reality:
Instructional design can start at any point in the design process. Often a glimmer of an idea is
developed to give the core of an instruction situation. By the time the entire process is done the designer
looks back and she or he checks to see that all parts of the "science" have been taken into account. Then
the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion .
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
7
A. Definitions in the ID Domain
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
ID
Vocabulary
A.3 What is Instructional Design Theory?
IT is a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop. The concepts of
learn and develop may include cognitive, emotional, social, physical and spiritual concepts (Reigeluth,
1999)
Gagne and Dick (1983) define ID theory as an attempt to relate specified events of instruction and
learning processes and learning outcomes:
•
Based on the knowledge base of learning research theory
•
Prescriptive in the sense that they attempt to identify conditions of instruction which will optimize
learning, retention and learning transfer
•
Expected to provide, at minimum, rational description of causal relationships between procedures
used to teach and their behavioral outcomes, preferably enhanced human performance
Interested in reading more about IT Theory and the Grand Masters? Sources:
http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/s/j/sjm256/portfolio/kbase/Theories&Models/theoryintro.html#idtheory
http://www.umich.edu/~ed626/Dick_Carey/dc.html
http://tip.psychology.org/reigelut.html
http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
8
ID
Vocabulary
A. 3 (details by Gagne) Instructional Design Theory Characteristics
•
•
•
An orientation towards design, focusing on the means to attain goals for learning and
development. It is not description oriented, which emphasizes the results of given
events, like information processing theory. Design oriented (goal oriented) theories are
practical and useful - and prescriptive.
Methods of instruction can be broken into detailed component methods with smaller
parts.
The methods are probabilistic rather than deterministic - they increase the chances of
attaining goals not ensuring them. The goal of ID theory is to attain the highest possible
probability of the desired results happening.
Interested in reading more? Her’s a good source: McGriff, 2003:
http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/s/j/sjm256/portfolio/kbase/Theories&Models/theoryintro.html#idtheory
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
9
A. Definitions in the ID Domain
ID
Vocabulary
A.4 What is Technology?
•
Throughout the twentieth century the uses of the term have increased to the
point where it now encompasses a number of “classes” of technology
Technology as Objects: Tools, machines, instruments, weapons, appliances the physical devices of technical performance
2. Technology as Knowledge: The know-how behind technological innovation.
3. Technology as Activities: What people do - their skills, methods, procedures,
routines
4. Technology as a Process: Begins with a need and ends with a solution
5. Technology as a Sociotechnical System: The manufacturer and use of objects
involving people and other objects in combination.
1.
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
10
ID
Vocabulary
Technology: Further (Optional)
Online Reading resources (blue links are hot)
Defining Technology and Issues in Philosophy (Excellent link)
Bilton, J, 2003: http://atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/watistec.html
Babbage (1832) on Machinery - one of the original treatises
http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/babbage/index.html
Ellul (1981) Argued that technique and use are the same - his commitment to scrutinize technology &
society pushes the field forward
http://www.regent.edu/acad/schcom/rojc/mdic/ellul1.html
Ihde, J. (1996). This philosopher outlines technological realism and points out that we often think the
technology is a thing that leads us, at our own peril.
http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/SPT/v1_n1n2/ihde.html
Mitcham, C. (1994). In his book “Thinking Through Technology”, the history of technology, issues and a
philosophical analysis of tech past and present is offered. Excellent:
http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/v6n2/dietrich.jte-v6n2.html
Edler, F. (2001). A collection of rigorous philosophical essays on technology. A “must” for a Ph.D.
student who is questioning technology in the context of instructional design or Educational
Technology http://commhum.mccneb.edu/PHILOS/techessay.htm
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
11
ID
Vocabulary
A. Definitions in the ID Domain
•
•
•
•
•
•
A. 4 What is Educational Technology?
Educational technology is a complex, integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices, and
organization, for analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluating, and managing solutions to those
problems, involved in all aspects of human learning. In educational technology, the solutions to problems take the
form of all the Learning Resources that are designed and/or selected and/or utilized to bring about learning, these
resources are identified as Messages, People, Materials, Devices, Techniques, and Settings. The processes for
analyzing problems, and devising, implementing and evaluating solutions are identified by the Educational
Development Functions of Research-Theory, Design, Production, Evaluation-Selection, Logistics, Utilization,
and Utilization-Dissemination. The processes of directing or coordinating one or more of these functions are
identified by the Educational Management Functions of Organization Management and Personnel Management.
Educational technology is a theory about how problems in human learning are identified and solved.
Educational technology is a field involved in applying a complex, integrated process to analyze and solve
problems in human learning.
Educational technology is a profession made up of an organized effort to implement the theory, intellectual
technique, and practical application of educational technology.
Source: AECT, ( 1997)
http://courses.educ.ksu.edu/EDETC886/ProSemB/Chandima/AECTdefinition.html
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
12
ID
Vocabulary
A. Definitions in the ID Domain
A. 5 What is Instructional Technology?
The most recent definition of the field (which uses the term, instructional technology) has been published by
the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT): Instructional Technology is
the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and
resources for learning.
The complete definition, with its rationale, is presented in the AECT publication: Association for Educational
Communications and Technology. (1994). "Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the
field." Washington, DC: Author.
•
An overview of the field can be found in:
•
Gagne, Robert M. (Ed.). (1987). "Instructional technology: Foundations." Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
•
Anglin, Gary J. (Ed.). (1995). "Instructional technology: Past, present & future" (2nd ed.). Englewood,
CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Optional Reading:
Ely, D. P. (1995). ERIC DIGEST: http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed387117.html
Foti, S. (2003) A great compendium of Education Thinkers and their work.
http://www.coe.ufl.edu/webtech/GreatIdeas/index.htm
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
13
ID
So.. What do we do with these definitions?Vocabulary
•
•
•
We now have the language to continue to study the kind of education domain
most supported by the bulk of Instructional Design theories today - Cognitivist
Education.
By looking at the cognitivist education approach first (Reigeluth, Chapter 3)
we can compare this foundational way of knowing (epistemology) of ID to the
the other 2 approaches to Instructional design - as Reigeluth gives us a
framework by which we can check instruction theory and practice Behaviorism
and Constructivism.
Remember the 3 approaches first, then it’s a cognitivist venture…. :-)
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
14
3 Approaches
B. A Comparison of the 3 Main Approaches to
Instructional Design
Outstanding
Behavior !
•
•
•
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Constructivism
Cogitator
On the beach:
I remember what to do
When the tide comes in..
Two constructivists learning about
Aerodynamics… or friendship… or the ocean
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
15
3 Approaches
Behaviorism
•
•
What is Behaviorism? Behaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to
Aristotle, whose essay "Memory" focused on associations being made between
events such as lightning and thunder. Other philosophers that followed Aristotle's
thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown (1820), Bain (1855) and
Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995).
The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can
be observed and measured (Good & Brophy, 1990). Behaviorists view the mind
as a "black box" in the sense that response to stimulus can be observed
quantitatively, totally ignoring the possibility of thought processes occurring in
the mind.
Optional Reading: http://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/~mmalacho/OnLine/ADDIE.html
http://mercury.sfsu.edu/~ching/personal/Learning/behavior.html
Operant Conditioning (Kendridge, 2001) http://www.biozentrum.uniwuerzburg.de/genetics/behavior
Animal Intelligence (Green, 2002) on Thorndike.
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Thorndike/Animal/
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
16
3 Approaches
Constructivism
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
What is Constructivism?
Bartlett (1932) pioneered what became the constructivist approach (Good & Brophy, 1990).
Constructivists believe that "learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their
perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental
structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events." "What someone knows is grounded in
perception of the physical and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind." (Jonasson,
1991). Jerome Bruner is the father of Constructivism.
Optional further Reading on behaviorism
http://www.artsined.com/teachingarts/Pedag/Constructivist.html
http://users.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/ET-IT/constr.htm
http://www.artsined.com/teachingarts/Pedag/Dewey.html
http://it.coe.uga.edu/itforum/paper1/paper1.html
http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/construct.html
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
17
3 Approaches
Constructivism (continued)
•
•
•
If each person has their own view about reality, then how can we as a society communicate and/or
coexist? Jonassen, addressing this issue in his article Thinking Technology: Toward a Constructivist
Design Model, makes the following comments: "Perhaps the most common misconception of
constructivism is the inference that we each therefore construct a unique reality, that reality is only
in the mind of the knower, which will doubtlessly lead to intellectual anarchy.” (1997)
"A reasonable response to that criticism is the Gibsonian perspective that contends that there
exists a physical world that is subject to physical laws that we all know in pretty much the same
way because those physical laws are perceivable by humans in pretty much the same way.”
"Constructivists also believe that much of reality is shared through a process of social
negotiation..." If one searches through the many philosophical and psychological theories of the
past, the threads of constructivism may be found in the writing of such people as Bruner, Ulrick,
Neiser, Goodman, Kant, Kuhn, Dewey and Habermas. The most profound influence was Jean
Piaget's work which was interpreted and extended by von Glasserfield (Smorgansbord, 1997).
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
18
3 Approaches
Cognitivism
•
•
•
What is Cognitivism?
"Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations
established through contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance
of reinforcement, although they stress its role in providing feedback about the
correctness of responses over its role as a motivator. However, even while accepting
such behavioristic concepts, cognitive theorists view learning as involving the
acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans
process and store information." (Good and Brophy, 1990, pp. 187).
As with behaviorism, cognitive psychology can be traced back to the ancient Greeks,
Plato and Aristotle. The cognitive revolution became evident in American psychology
during the 1950's (Saettler, 1990). One of the major players in the development of
cognitivism is Jean Piaget, who developed the major aspects of his theory as early as
the 1920's. Piaget's ideas did not impact North America until the 1960's after Miller
and Bruner founded the Harvard Center for Cognitive studies.
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
19
3 Approaches
Cognitive Education: More Detail (Reigeluth, Ch. 3).
•
•
•
Cognitive models underlie the theory behind most ID models in practice
today - but there is a need to go beyond this model, scholars feel (Jonassen,
1997).
We need to go beyond designing for the successful achievement of
objectives because - some learning is not in the design, and some objectives
are too narrow in the learner’s context.
Bloom (1956) Designed a taxonomy that related levels of cognition to
student capacities.
•
Bloom: A Great summary & Graphics : http://www.ittheory.com/bloom1.htm
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
20
3 Approaches
Cognitive Education: More Detail (Reigeluth, Ch. 3).
•
•
•
•
•
•
Robert Gagne (1985) proposed a taxonomy of learning outcomes within
3 main categories of the cognitive domain:
1. Verbal information: When a learner states a fact via speech or text.
2. Intellectual Skills: A learner interacts with his/her environment by using
symbols (language, gesture, art..)
3. Cognitive Strategies: A learner has executive brain functions that allow
him/her to manage learning, remembering and thinking.
Ausubel, Anderson, Merrill, Reigeluth
A summary of the cognitive strategy process chart Gagne invented is on the
next page… (cool stuff, no? ;-)
Further Optional Reading on Gagne and the Conditions of learning
http://www.my-ecoach.com/idtimeline/theory/gagne.html **
http://education.indiana.edu/~p540/webcourse/gagne.html *
http://www.ittheory.com/gagne1.htm (Excellent) Five Stars *****
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
21
3 Approaches
Gagne - Genius or … process man?
Does this describe learning and memory in your
context?
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
22
Cognitive Education:
3 Approaches
Reigeluth’s (1999) framework lets us compare
(Behaviorist or Constructivist) theories of instruction
using 6 Categories
1. Compare the Type of Learning
What types of learning do the theory and its methods address?
(Ie: to memorize, apply a skill, understand relationships or apply general skills?)
2. Compare the Control of Learning
Who controls the nature of the learning process: the teacher, the student or the instructional designer?
(ie: is it student or teacher centred?)
3. Compare the Focus of Learning
Do the learning activities revolve around specific topics, or problems or something else?
(ie: is the learning interdisciplinary, topical, problem based or domain based)
4. Compare the Grouping of learners:
How are the learners grouped - individually or not?
(ie: pairs, individuals, small or large teams?)
5. Compare the interactions for learning:
Is the interaction student with teachers, student with student, student with materials? (ie: human or non human)
6. Compare the kinds of support the learners get:
What kinds of (emotinal, material or cognitive) support is given to the learner?
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
23
Assignment
For Next Week (January 30):
Deliverables:
1.
Read these notes :-)
2.
Read the following online article:
Mergel, M. (1998). Instructional Design and Learning Theory.
http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm
This is a great overview of the 3 approaches to ID, with a cute physics metaphor and optional (embedded) reading on the history of the 3 approaches.
As you read, ask yourself as a teacher, as a learner and now as a designer of
instruction:
- Which approach do I favor
for teaching? Why?
for learning? Why?
for Design? Why?
- (you don’t need to hand this in - it’ll be in the discussion thread too)
3.
4.
Respond to the discussion thread topic, please.
Verbal Assignment: Prepare to present your short-topic on Issues or Trends
in the Ed Tech field (verbally) on Vclass with us per guidelines on the next page.
(this is casual - for conversation and discussion next week in our synchronous
session).
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
24
Assignment
For Next Week (January 30):
A Guideline for the Verbal Assignment
A guide for Vclass Discussion next week in
our Synchronous Class
Please refer to the lists on the following pages of students assigned to see whether you will
present an excerpt from either Educational Technology Issues or Trends from the Anglin
Book. You’ll present us with a snapshot of your short reading from Anglin. Have some fun with
this :-))
These short student assignments will be presented verbally (Gene will use the whiteboard to
type up the issues and examples as you speak). Below is a guide to help you. Please provide
to the class, when called, to share, the following :-)
1. Please state a brief summary of your topic
- Share the main message in the section that you were assigned.
2. Please state an example of your topic as you find it in your practice.
- state the context of your practice (where I saw or do this)
- state the example (the following is a concrete example of my topic, from my setting…)
3. Please state Your opinion on the topic : In your mind, has this topic changed since 1995?
How so?
4. Ask someone a question that checks us to see if we understand the main point of your
message.
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
25
Student Article Excerpt Assignments for Jan 30 Class:
Your section is beside your name - have fun!
Student Name
Article
Baty
Jody
Issues
Brisebois John
Issues
Burton Spohn
Rosemarie Issues
Crossley Allan
Issues
Desmarais Calv in
Issues
Elmhurst Tammy
Issues
Geohagen Simon
Issues
Kahler
Karen
Issues
Khatib
Michelle
Issues
Kim
Kenneth Issues
Section in Article
Problems
1. The boundaries of the educational technology f ield will remain poorly drawn
2. The Curricular Core of Academic and other programsÉ.
3. The bulk of the research in the f ield will continueÉ
4. There will continue to be only limited use of pimary criteriaÉ
5. Undesirable side ef f ects of the entrepreneurial practices of indiv idualÉ
6. There will continute to be inconsistent support f or ET f rom administratorsÉ
7. There will continue to be a div ision between educational teachnologists andÉ
8. There will continue to be inadequate response to the critics of educational technology
9. Conf usion ov er the def inition of and the need f or technological literacy É
10. The predilection of eduactional technologists and other Educators to reinv entÉ
Klinge
Jennif er
McCauslandSean
McKinlay Andrew
Shea
Richard
Skerry
Leo
Stiles
Joanne
Tweedle
Dean
Vizina
Ray
Wy per
Michael
Geohagen Simon
1. The creation of technology based teaching/learning produccts isÉ
2. Ev aluation has taken on greater importanceÉ
3. The number of educational technology case studies is growingÉ
4. Distance Education is ev ident at almost ev ery educational lev elÉ
5. The f ield of educational technol ogy has more and better inf ormation about itself É
6. Computers are perv asiv e in the schoolsÉ
7. Telecommunciations is the link that is connectingÉ
8. The teacher's role in the teaching and learning process isÉ
9. There is increasing pressure f or the schools to consider adoptionÉ
10. Prof essional education of educational technologists has stabilized in size and scope
Trends
Trends
Trends
Trends
Trends
Trends
Trends
Trends
Trends
Trends
Issues Article: Gentry , C., & Csete, J. (1995). Educational Technology in the 1990s. In Anglin, G, p. 20-26\
Trends Article: Ely , D., Foley , A., Freman, W., & Scheel, N. (1995). Trends in Educational Technology Épp. 34-5
Instructional Design
© E. Kowch 2002
26