Recent Developments in
Assessment
Mid South Conference on
Psychology in the Schools, Huntsville, AL
October 23, 2012
JEROME M. SATTLER
Copyright © 2012 Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc.

There was no respect for youth when I
was young, and now that I am old, there is
no respect for age - I missed it coming and
going. ~J.B. Priestly

Old age is fifteen years older than I
am. ~Oliver Wendell Holmes

Men do not quit playing because they
grow old; they grow old because they quit
playing. ~Oliver Wendell Holmes

Question: What are three examples of
Marine life?

Answer:
1. Marching
2. Barracks inspection
3. Running the obstacle course

Question: Where is the Milky Way
located?

Answer: In the checkout aisle next to the
rest of the candy bars

Question: What is a terminal illness?

Answer: When you are sick at the airport.

Question: Give three geological names for
rocks.

Answer: Classic rock, hard rock, and acid
rock, and I also know fourth one, soft
rock.

Question: What is water composed of?

Answer: Two gins—Oxygin and hydrogin.
Oxygin is pure gin, while hydrogen is gin
and water.
Proof Reading and Spelling Gafs

Kids Make Nutritious Snacks

Juvenile Court to Try Shooting Defendant

New Study of Obesity Looks for Larger
Test Group
Proof Reading and Spelling Gafs

Panda Mating Fails; Veterinarian Takes
Over

Hospitals are Sued by Seven Foot Doctors
Proof Reading and Spelling Gafs

Please excuse ray friday from school. He
has very loose vowels.

Please excuse Jason for being absent
yesterday. He had a cold and could not
breed well.
Proof Reading and Spelling Gafs

Please excuse mary for being absent
yesterday. She was in bed with gramps.

Please exkuce lisa for being absent she
was sick and i had her shot.

My son is under a doctor's care and
should not take PE today. Please execute
him.
America’s Children, 2009-2010
[1]
Demographic
Background
N
(Millions) Percent
Euro American
39.6
53.5
African American
10.4
14.0
Hispanic American
17.1
23.1
Asian American
3.2
4.3
Other
3.9
5.2
America’s Children, 2009-2010
[2]
N
Economic Well-Being (Millions) Percent
Children in poverty
16.3
22.0
Parents unemployed
24.4
33.0
High cost of housing
30.4
41.0
--
9.0
Teens not in school and
not working
America’s Children, 2009-2010
[3]
Education
Not attending preschool
Percent
53.0
Not proficient in reading, 4th graders 68.0
Not proficient in math, 8th graders
66.0
High school graduates not
graduating on time
24.0
America’s Children, 2009-2010
[4]
Health
N
Percent
Low birthweight babies
--
8.2
Without health
insurance
Child and teen deaths
5.9
million
27 per
100,000
--
8.0
Teens who abuse
alcohol or drugs
-7.0
America’s Children, 2009-2010
[5]
Family & Social
Environment
N
(Millions) Percent
In single-parent family
25.2
34.0
Head of household
lacks high school
diploma
Living in high-poverty
areas
11.1
15.0
8.2
11.0
America’s Children, 2009-2010
[6]
Family & Social Environment
Teen births
Child maltreatment
Under age 1
Ages 1-3
Ages 4-7
Ages 8-11
Ages 12-15
Ages 16-17
N (per 1,000)
39
21
12
11
9
8
6
America’s Children, 2009-2010
[7]

Source: Annie E. Casey Foundation.
(2012). 2012 Kids count data book.
Retrieved from
http://datacenter.kidscount.org/DataBook/2
012/OnlineBooks/KIDSCOUNT2012DataB
ookFullReport.pdf
America’s Children, 2009-2010
[8]

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and
Family Statistics. (2011). America’s
children: Key national indicators of wellbeing, 2011. Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office. Retrieved
from
http://www.childstats.gov/pdf/ac2011/ac_1
1.pdf
M.H. and J.H vs. Monroe-Woodbury
Central School District [1]
M.H. and J.H., on their own behalf and on behalf
of their daughter L.H., Plaintiffs-Appellees, -v.MONROE-WOODBURY CENTRAL
SCHOOL DISTRICT, Defendant-Appellant.
No. 07-1571-cv
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR
THE SECOND CIRCUIT
2008 U.S. App. LEXIS 21299
October 7, 2008, Decided
M.H. and J.H vs. Monroe-Woodbury
Central School District [2]



ISSUE IN CASE
Does L.H. need a residential program?
Parents say “Yes”
School says “No”
M.H. and J.H vs. Monroe-Woodbury
Central School District [3]

APPELLATE COURT'S REASONING
Administrative record reveals that the child
was progressing, not regressing, in the
day-program at the Summit School.
 Not only do her grades reflect that she
was achieving academically, but reports
from certified counselors demonstrate
that she was making improvements in
her social and emotional problems as
well.
M.H. and J.H vs. Monroe-Woodbury
Central School District [4]
APPELLATE COURT'S REASONING
(Cont.)
 Moreover,
none of several psychological
reports suggested that, in order to
advance academically, the child needed
a residential program to deal with her
emotional problems.
M.H. and J.H vs. Monroe-Woodbury
Central School District [5]


APPELLATE COURT'S REASONING
(Cont.)
We find no substantial evidence to reverse
the findings of the administrative hearing
officers.
We have considered all of the parties'
arguments and examined the
administrative record. For the foregoing
reasons, the judgment of the District Court
is REVERSED.
Forest Grove School District v. T.A.
Supreme Court Case (2009) [1]




Court ruled that the parents of a student
with a disability were entitled to private
school tuition reimbursement
T.A. had not been identified with a
disability
Or previously provided with special
education services
District multidisciplinary team had not
identified T.A.’s disability
Forest Grove School District v. T.A.
Supreme Court Case (2009) [2]




Only a limited psychoeducational
evaluation was conducted
Evaluation did not assess all areas of
suspected disability
Parents sought an independent
comprehensive evaluation
Comprehensive psychoeducational
evaluation led to more targeted
interventions in his private school
placement
Forest Grove School District v. T.A.
Supreme Court Case (2009) [3]


T.A. performed better in private school
after comprehensive evaluation
Case highlights the need for school-based
teams to conduct comprehensive
evaluations in all areas of suspected
disability
Forest Grove School District v. T.A.
Supreme Court Case (2009) [4]


SOURCE
Dixon, S. G., Eusebio, E. C., Turton, W.
J., Wright, P. W. D., & Hale, J. B. (2011).
Forest Grove School District v. T.A.
Supreme Court Case: Implications for
school psychology practice. Journal of
Psychoeducational Assessment, 29(2),
103–113. doi:
10.1177/0734282910388598
Forest Grove School District v. T.A., 129
S. Ct. 2484 (2009).
OSEP’s Memo Dated:
January 21, 2011 [1]




To: State Directors of Special Education
From: Melody Musgrove, director
Subject: Response to Intervention (RTI)
and possible delay of an evaluation under
IDEA
http://www.rti4success.org/images/stories/
RTI%20Memo_1-21-11r.pdf
OSEP’s Memo Dated:
January 21, 2011 [2]



IMPLEMENTING IDEA 2004
Identification of all children with disabilities
residing in the State must occur in timely
manner
No procedures should result in delaying or
denying identification
Reports indicate local school districts may
be using RTI strategies to delay or deny
evaluation for students suspected of
having a disability
OSEP’s Memo Dated:
January 21, 2011 [3]


IMPLEMENTING IDEA 2004 (Cont.)
States must examine their procedures to
ensure that school districts implementing
RTI do not delay or deny timely
evaluations and services to students
suspected of having a disability
If Local Educational Authority (LEA)
denies request for an initial evaluation it
must provide written notice to parents
explaining why
OSEP’s Memo Dated:
January 21, 2011 [4]

IMPLEMENTING IDEA 2004 (Cont.)
Parent can challenge this decision by
requesting a due process hearing
OSEP’s Memo Dated:
January 21, 2011 [5]



MEMO DESCRIBES RTI
A multi-tiered instructional framework
Schoolwide approach that addresses the
needs of all students
Integrates assessment and intervention
within a multi-level instructional and
behavioral system
OSEP’s Memo Dated:
January 21, 2011 [6]




MEMO DESCRIBES RTI (Cont.)
Aims to maximize student achievement
and reduce problem behaviors
Schools identify students at-risk for poor
learning outcomes
Monitor student progress
Provide evidence-based interventions
OSEP’s Memo Dated:
January 21, 2011 [7]


MEMO DESCRIBES RTI (Cont.)
Adjust the intensity and nature of those
interventions depending on a student’s
responsiveness
Children who do not respond to RTI and
are potentially eligible for special
education and related services are
referred for evaluation
OSEP’s Memo Dated:
January 21, 2011 [8]


MEMO DESCRIBES RTI (Cont.)
Thus, those children who simply need
intense short-term interventions are
provided those interventions
Information obtained through RTI may also
be used as a component of evaluations for
children suspected of having disabilities
other than SLD, if appropriate
OSEP’s Memo Dated:
January 21, 2011 [9]


OTHER MEMO POINTS
The regulations at 34 CFR §300.301 (b)
allow parent to request an initial evaluation
at any time to determine if a child is a child
with a disability
RTI cannot be used to delay or deny the
provision of a full and individual
evaluation
OSEP’s Memo Dated:
January 21, 2011 [10]


OTHER MEMO POINTS (Cont.)
LEA must seek parental consent within a
reasonable period of time after the referral
for evaluation, if the LEA agrees that an
initial evaluation is needed
An LEA must conduct the initial evaluation
within 60 days of receiving parental
consent for the evaluation or,
OSEP’s Memo Dated:
January 21, 2011 [11]


OTHER MEMO POINTS (Cont.)
If the State establishes a timeframe within
which the evaluation must be conducted,
within that timeframe
An LEA cannot reject a referral and delay
provision of an initial evaluation on the
basis that a child has not participated in an
RTI framework
Legal Implications of RTI [1]

By Jose L. Martin, Attorney at Law,
Austin, TX
At what point should schools suspect that
students who are struggling with the
curriculum while receiving regular
education interventions might actually
have a specific learning disability?
Legal Implications of RTI [2]

How long should a student receive regular
interventions before a school initiates an
IDEA evaluation?

Is the child-find obligation triggered if a
child moves through tiers of interventions
with some improvement, but nevertheless
continues to show deficits in achievement?
Legal Implications of RTI [3]

How should schools handle parents’
requests for evaluations when
interventions have only just been initiated
and/or appear to show promise?

How can schools avoid failure-to-identify
IDEA hearing claims while attempting to
make best use of regular education
interventions prior to a referral?
Legal Implications of RTI [4]


SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
Meeting with parents to discuss
intervention options, agreed timelines, and
available courses of action
Making clear to parents their right to
request an IDEA evaluation and providing
written notice of IDEA procedural
safeguards
Legal Implications of RTI [5]


SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS (Cont.)
Reaching a consensus on a course of
action in a collaborative manner
If the consensus decision is to pursue
regular education interventions, sharing
progress data frequently with parents
Legal Implications of RTI [6]

SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS (Cont.)
Initiating follow-up communication
regarding progress or lack thereof

Convening follow-up meetings to review
progress and renew consensus on current
course of action

Documenting the steps above
Legal Implications of RTI [7]
SOURCE:
http://www.rtinetwork.org/learn/ld/legalimplications-of-response-to-interventionand-special-education-identification
NEW FINDINGS ON
CHILD WELL-BEING
AND LIFE
EXPECTANCY
Child Abuse Spikes as U.S. Economy
Flounders [1]




Some families driven to the brink because
of recession.
Child-protection agencies (CPA)
overwhelmed.
Parents can’t pay for needed drugs.
Referrals to CPA rose 30% in first two
months of 2009.
Child Abuse Spikes as U.S. Economy
Flounders [2]
SOURCE
Szep, J. (2009). Child abuse spikes as U.S.
economy flounders. Retrieved from:
http://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNe
ws/idUSTRE53F00Y20090416
Life Expectancy Tied To Education
[1]


Life expectancy is 82 for individuals with
more than 12 years of education
Life expectancy is 75 for individuals with
12 or fewer years of education.
Life Expectancy Tied To Education
[2]
Possible Reasons
Those with less education:
 Are likely to have more smoking-related
diseases, such as lung cancer and
emphysema—35% of Americans with an
9th to 11th grade education smoke, while
only 7% with a graduate degree smoke
 Are likely to have lower incomes
Life Expectancy Tied To Education
[3]



Possible Reasons (Cont.)
Are likely to live in areas that have their
own health threats, either through crime or
poor housing conditions
Are likely to have limited health insurance
and limited access to health services
Are more likely to agree with the
statement: “It doesn't matter if I wear a
seat belt, because if it’s my time to die, I'll
die.”
Life Expectancy Tied To Education
[4]



Summary and Recommendations
The less affluent and less educated are
also, invariably, less healthy.
Disparities in health are a major challenge
in the United States.
Health is not a product of health care per
se, but of one's life course and
opportunities.
Life Expectancy Tied To Education
[5]
Summary and Recommendations (Cont.)


The less educated must learn the
following: “It does matter. Life is uncertain,
but that's no reason to surrender to fate.”
Fighting poverty and improving education
are keys to increasing life expectancy
among less-advantaged Americans.
Life Expectancy Tied To Education
[6]
SOURCE
Meara, E. R., Richards, S., & Cutler, D. M.
(2008). The gap gets bigger: Changes in
mortality and life expectancy, by
education, 1981–2000. Health Affairs, 27,
350–360.
Multimethod Assessment
[Cognitive, pp. 8-9] [1]

Obtain information about the child’s
medical, developmental, academic,
familial, and social history

Obtain information about the child’s
current cognitive, academic, behavioral,
social, and interpersonal functioning
Multimethod Assessment
[Cognitive, pp. 8-9] [2]

Determine the child’s cognitive, academic,
and social strengths and weaknesses

Understand the nature, presence, and
degree of any disabling conditions that the
child might have
Multimethod Assessment
[Cognitive, pp. 8-9] [3]

Cross-validate impressions provided by
multiple informants

Determine the conditions that inhibit or
support the acquisition of appropriate skills

Obtain baseline information prior to the
implementation of an intervention program
Multimethod Assessment
[Cognitive, pp. 8-9] [4]

Develop useful instructional programs

Guide students in selecting educational
and vocational programs

Monitor cognitive, academic, or social
changes in the child (and in the family,
school, and community as needed)

Measure the effectiveness of interventions
Students Ages 6 to 21 Served Under
IDEA in 2008-2009 [1]
Disability
N
%
2,476,000
40.4
1,426,000
23.3
478,000
7.8
Emotional disturbance
420,000
6.9
Multiple disabilities
130,000
2.1
Hearing impairments
78,000
1.3
Specific learning
disabilities
Speech or language
impairments
Intellectual disability
Students Ages 6 to 21 Served Under
IDEA in 2008-2009 [2]
Disability
N
%
Orthopedic impairments
70,000
1.1
Other health impairments
659,000
10.7
Visual impairments
29,000
0.5
Autism
336,000
5.5
Traumatic brain injury
26,000
0.4
Students Ages 6 to 21 Served Under
IDEA in 2008-2009 [3]

SOURCE
U.S. Department of Education, National
Center for Education Statistics (2011).
Digest of Education Statistics, 2010
(NCES 2011-015). Retrieved from
http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id
=64
IDEA 2008-2009





Five Highest Disability Categories:
Learning disabilities: 40.4%
Speech/language impairments: 23.3%
Other health impairments: 10.7%
Intellectual disability: 7.8%
Emotional disturbance: 6.9%
IDEA 2004 Student
Graduation Rates



Graduate with regular high school
diploma: 54.5%
Dropped out: 31.1%
Other: 14.4% (includes certificate of
completion, reached maximum age, or
died)
IDEA 2004 Student
Graduation Rates
Other
14%
Dropped out
31%
Graduate
with regular
high school
diploma
55%
IDEA: Full and Appropriate
Individual Initial Evaluation
[RG p. 247-1]




Multiple assessment tools and strategies
Multiple types of information
Multiple criteria
Technically sound instruments
IDEA: Full and Appropriate
Individual Initial Evaluation
[RG p. 247-2]




Nondiscriminatory assessment procedures
Trained and knowledgeable personnel
Consideration of sensory, manual, and
speaking skills
Comprehensive coverage
Ambiguous Components of IDEA


Fails to clearly define what assessment
procedures to be selected and
administered so as not to be ethnically or
culturally discriminatory
Fails to specify any acceptable or
unacceptable assessment procedures
Comment on IDEA
[RG p. 266-267-1]

The ultimate measure of IDEA:
 The quality of the education received by
each child with a disability
 How the education is used to benefit the
child and society
 How society integrates individuals with
disabilities into the mainstream of daily
living
Assessment of English Language
Learners (ELL) [1]



Assessment Considerations
Assess both languages
Uncritical use of translated tests is not
recommended
Assistance of a trained linguistic or cultural
broker can be helpful
Assessment of ELL [2]




Assessment Considerations (Cont.)
Children may not be fully culturally
adapted
Norm- or criterion-referencing do not apply
for translated tests
Examiner may not be fluently bilingual in
both English and in the child’s language
Trained interpreters and/or cultural brokers
from the child’s background may be
unavailable
Assessment of ELL [3]


Assessment Considerations (Cont.)
Little documentation exists on the typical
and atypical course of development of
most foreign languages in the US
Child’s native language abilities may be
weaker than those of children in the home
country because of language attrition
Assessment of ELL [4]

Assessment Considerations (Cont.)
Diversity of minority languages spoken in
America underlies most of the limiting
factors
Assessment of ELL [5]





Test Accommodations
Test translation
Linguistic modification (a.k.a. simplified
English)
Providing bilingual or customized
dictionaries
Adding glossaries to the margins of test
booklets to define specific words
Extended testing time
Assessment of ELL [6]


Accommodations Raise Validity
Questions
Has the accommodation changed the
construct measured?
Are scores from accommodated tests
comparable to scores from the standard
version?
Assessment of ELL [7]



Accommodations Raise Validity
Questions (Cont.)
Do the scores from accommodated tests
provide more accurate measurement of
ELLs’ knowledge and skills relative to
scores from the standard test?
Does the accommodation provide an
unfair advantage to ELLs?
Do items function differentially across ELL
and non-ELL groups?
Assessment of ELL [8]



Accommodations Raise Validity
Questions (Cont.)
Does linguistic simplification affect the
construct validity of the test?
Do original and translated items function
differentially?
Is the factor structure equivalent across
standard and accommodated test
administrations?
Assessment of ELL [9]



Accommodations Raise Validity
Questions (Cont.)
Is the factor structure consistent across
ELL and non-ELL groups of students?
Is the predictive utility of an assessment
consistent across ELL and non-ELL
groups?
Do test accommodations lead to improved
scores for ELLs relative to non-ELLs?
Assessment of ELL [10]


Accommodations Raise Validity
Questions (Cont.)
Do ELL and non-ELL students use the
same processes in responding to test
items?
Do ELL and non-ELL students differ with
respect to the time needed to answer test
items?
Assessment of ELL [11]


Accommodations Raise Validity
Questions (Cont.)
Do teachers of ELL and non-ELL students
have the same opinions of standardized
tests?
Have state-mandated assessments
differentially affected instruction for ELLs
and non-ELLs?
Assessment of ELL Children [14]

Sources
Paradis, J., Emmerzael, K., & Duncan, T.
S. (2010). Assessment of English
language learners: Using parent report on
first language development. Journal of
Communication Disorders,
doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2010.01.002.
Assessment of ELL Children [15]

Sources
Sireci, S. G., Han, K. T., & Wells, C. S.
(2008). Methods for evaluating the validity
of test scores for English language
learners. Educational Assessment, 13(2–
3), 108–131.
doi:10.1080/10627190802394255.
Generations of Exclusion: Hispanic
Americans (Telles & Ortiz, 2008-1)


Studied 1,500 Mexican-Americans in Los
Angeles and San Antonio from 1960 to
2000
Results
Nearly every one spoke and read English
by the second generation, though they
remained bilingual
Generations of Exclusion: Hispanic
Americans (Telles & Ortiz, 2008-2)

Later generations were more likely to
become Protestants, vote Republican,
and marry non-Latinos

3/4 of immigrants liked Mexican music
best, while 1/2 of later generations
preferred Black American music
Mexican-American neighborhoods are
more segregated in 2000 than in 1960
because of the influx of immigrants

Generations of Exclusion: Hispanic
Americans (Telles & Ortiz, 2008-3)

Third generation Mexican-Americans’
income continues to lag behind EuroAmericans
 Loss
of middle-class manufacturing jobs
 Prejudice fueled by immigration debate
Generations of Exclusion: Hispanic
Americans (Telles & Ortiz, 2008-4)

Third generation Mexican-Americans’
income continues to lag behind EuroAmericans (Cont.)
 Subpar
school systems
 Years of education rose substantially for
children of immigrants, but high-school
graduation rates actually decreased
slightly by the fourth generation
Generations of Exclusion: Hispanic
Americans (Telles & Ortiz, 2008-5)

Recommendations
To reverse the slide, we need an
education-focused “Marshall Plan” to
boost school spending. Without it, too
many Mexican-Americans may be running
in place for generations to come
Generations of Exclusion: Hispanic
Americans (Telles & Ortiz, 2008-6)


Sources
Telles, E., & Ortiz, V. (2008). Generations
of exclusion: Mexican Americans,
assimilation, and race. New York, NY:
Russell Sage Foundation.
Adapted from Newsweek, March 24, 2008,
p. 15.
Pollution Lowers IQ [1]


Research by Perera et al. (2009) reported
that children of mothers’ exposed to high
levels of environmental pollutants during
pregnancy have a four-point drop in their
IQs by age 5
The exposure was to substances called
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
a by-product of the incomplete burning of
gas, diesel, oil, and coal.
Pollution Lowers IQ [2]


An earlier report found that higher prenatal
exposure to PAHs is associated with lower
weight and smaller head size at birth and
developmental delays at age 3.
The developing fetal brain is particularly
vulnerable to neurotoxic chemicals and
exposure to pollution could cause direct
genetic damage.
Pollution Lowers IQ [3]

We need to reduce these dangerous
emissions by, for example, reducing diesel
truck idling and requiring cleaner fuels.
Pollution Lowers IQ [4]
SOURCE
Perera, F. P., Li, Z., Whyatt, R., Hoepner, L.,
Wang, S., Camann, D., & Rauh, V. (2009).
Prenatal airborne polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbon exposure and child IQ at age
5 years. Pediatrics, 124(2), e195-e202.
doi: 10.1542/peds.2008-3506
Assessment Strategy [1]



Note the presence of any symptoms
Note the number, type, severity, and
duration of any symptoms
Note the situations in which any symptoms
are displayed
Assessment Strategy [2]



Evaluate verbal abilities, nonverbal
abilities, short- and long-term memory
abilities, other cognitive abilities,
personality, motor skills, perceptual skills,
and adaptive behaviors skills
Note presence of any co-occurring
disorders
Note if there are any educational and
instructional needs listed in educational
files
Assessment Strategy [3]



Inspect cumulative school records,
including attendance history, reports of
behavioral problems, school grades,
standardized test scores, number of
schools attended, and other relevant
information
Review relevant medical information
Interview parents, teachers, and the child
Assessment Strategy [4]



Observe child’s behavior in the classroom
and on the playground (and at home if
possible)
Administer rating scales to parents,
teachers, and a child who can read
Administer a battery of psychological tests
Behavioral Observation [1]


Electronic Coding Software
!Observe
http://www.psycsoft.com/products.shtml
BASC-2 Portable Observation Program
including Student Observation System
(SOS)
http://www.pearsonassessments.com/HAI
WEB/Cultures/enus/Productdetail.htm?Pid=paa38206
Behavioral Observation [2]


Electronic Coding Software (Cont.)
Behavioral Observation of Students in
Schools™ (BOSS™)
http://www.pearsonassessments.com/NR/r
donlyres/5439724A-BE33-487E-AECA09F3F8BC923E/0/BOSS_BW_SR.pdf
BehaviorLENS
http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/behaviorlen
s/id459755410?mt=8
Behavioral Observation [3]


Electronic Coding Software (Cont.)
Ecobehavioral Assessment Systems
Software (EBASS)
http://www.jgcp.ku.edu/products/EBASS/
eCOVE Observer
http://www.ecove.net/home/eco/smartlist_
228
Behavioral Observation [4]


Electronic Coding Software (Cont.)
iBAA (Behavioral Assessment Application)
http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/ibaa/id3837
05019?mt=8
INTERACT
http://www.mangoldinternational.com/en/software/interact/wha
t-is-interact.html
Behavioral Observation [5]


Electronic Coding Software (Cont.)
iSOFT (Mobility Suite Recording Clinical
Observations on iPhone/iPod Touch)
http://www.isofthealth.com/enAU/Newsroom/Multimedia.aspx?yt=%7BF
DFF0D04-DF55-4B0D-AE5E6FAFEEC45378%7D
MOOSES™ (Multi-Option Observation
System for Experimental Studies)
http://mooses.vueinnovations.com
Behavioral Observation [6]


Electronic Coding Software (Cont.)
NoBox (TimerData Observation/Evaluation
Software)
http://noboxinc.com/timer_data/index.html
Praxis Behavioral Observation Software
(PBOS)
http://www.sbir.gov/sbirsearch/detail/2796
00
Behavioral Observation [7]


Electronic Coding Software (Cont.)
Scribe 4
http://img.uoregon.edu/scribe/html/images/
Scribe_Manual.pdf
SOTO (Student On-Task Observation)
http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/sotostudent-on-taskobservation/id428809608?mt=8
Behavioral Observation [8]

Electronic Coding Software (Cont.)
The Observer® XT
http://www.noldus.com/human-behaviorresearch/products/the-observer-xt
Behavioral Observation [9]
Pencil-and-paper vs. Electronic
Recording Methods
Advice from Bakeman & Quera (2012):
Behavioral Observation [10]
Pencil-and-paper vs. Electronic
Recording Methods (Cont.)
It is the usual trade-off: electronic recording
methods provide richer data, more analytic
options, less tedious coding, fewer clerical
errors, more tasks automated—as well as
greater expense, longer learning times, and
more resources devoted to maintenance.
Behavioral Observation [11]
Pencil-and-paper vs. Electronic
Recording Methods (Cont.)
As always, the right recording system is the
one that matches resources with needs, and
when simpler, less precise data are
sufficient to answer key research questions,
simple and inexpensive may be best. (p.
215, with changes in notation)
Behavioral Observation [12]
Source
Bakeman, R., & Quera, V. (2012).
Behavioral observation. In H. Cooper, P. M.
Camic, D. L. Long, A. T. Panter, D.
Rindskopf, & K. J. Sher (Eds.) , APA
handbook of research methods in
psychology, Vol 1: Foundations, planning,
measures, and psychometrics (pp. 207–
225). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Ratings in Observation
Anchoring the frequency descriptions to
percentages of time.
 Example:
1 Almost never (0% to 15% of the time)
2 Rarely (16% to 35% of the time)
3 Occasionally (36% to 65% of the time)
4 Frequently (66% to 85% of the time)
5 Almost always (86% to 100% of the time)

Observing Problem Behavior [1]



Does the student’s behavior significantly
differ from that of his/her classmates?
Does the student’s behavior lessen the
possibility of successful learning for the
student and others?
Have past efforts to address the student’s
behavior using standard interventions
been unsuccessful?
Observing Problem Behavior [2]



Does the student’s behavior represent a
behavioral deficit or excess, rather than a
cultural difference?
Is the student’s behavior serious,
persistent, chronic, or a threat to the safety
of the student or others?
If the behavior persists, is some
disciplinary action likely to result?
Observing Problem Behavior [3]





Times when the problem behavior occurs
Location of the problem behavior
Conditions when the problem behavior
occurs
Individuals present when the problem
behavior occurs
Conditions that typically occur before the
problem behavior
Observing Problem Behavior [4]



Conditions that typically occur after the
problem behavior
Setting events
Peer behaviors associated with the
problem behavior
Observing Problem Behavior [5]




Functional Interview with Teacher
“In what settings and under what
conditions do you observe the behavior?”
“Are there any settings/situations in which
the behavior does not occur?”
“Who is present when the behavior
occurs?”
“What activities or interactions take place
just prior to the behavior?”
Observing Problem Behavior [6]
Functional Interview with Teacher (Cont.)
 “What activities or interactions usually take
place immediately following the behavior?”
 “Are there other behaviors that occur
along with the problem behavior?”
 “Can you think of any reasons why Mandy
might behave this way?”
 “What would be a more acceptable way for
the student to achieve the same
outcome?”
Observing Problem Behavior [7]




Functional Interview with Student
“Is there anything that is happening
outside of school lately that bothers you?”
“Is there something new that is happening
to you?”
“Does it bother you?”
“What was the lesson about that was
being taught right before you made the
comments that made your classroom
laugh?”
Observing Problem Behavior [8]
Functional Interview with Student (Cont.)
 “What was your teacher doing?”
 “Do you remember what were you thinking
right before you made the comments?”
 “How do you feel about getting homework
in science?”
 “Can you tell me what Mr. Smith was
expecting of you during science class?”
Observing Problem Behavior [9]
Functional Interview with Student (Cont.)
 “When you make the funny comments in
class, what usually happens afterward?”
 “How does that make you feel?”
Observing Problem Behavior [10]
Source
The information for Observing Problem
Behavior came from the Center for Effective
Collaboration and Practice, pp. 6, 7,
Appendix D; most of the material has been
quoted directly from these pages.
Observing Problem Behavior [11]
Source
Centers for Collaboration and Practice.
(1998). Addressing student problem
behavior—Part II: Conducting a functional
behavioral assessment. Retrieved from
http://cecp.air.org/fba/problembehavior2/Fun
ctional%20Analysis.PDF
Self-Monitoring Assessment [1]




Step 1: Check whether the child can read
at a level needed to fill out the selfmonitoring form
Step 2: Focus on a single target behavior
Step 3: Select a positive target behavior
rather than a negative one, if possible
Step 4: Give the child a clear and simple
definition of the target behavior
Self-Monitoring Assessment [2]



Step 5: Give the child clear and simple
instructions on how to monitor and record
the target behavior
Step 6: Instruct the child to record the
target behavior as soon as possible after
its occurrence rather than waiting until the
end of the day
Step 7: Ask the child to define the target
behavior
Self-Monitoring Assessment [3]



Step 8: Demonstrate the self-monitoring
procedure by using the recording form or
device, modeling the recording procedure,
and discussing potential problems
Step 9: Role-play the self-monitoring
procedure
Step 10: Ask the child if he or she has any
questions about the self-monitoring
procedure
Self-Monitoring Assessment [4]



Step 11: Conduct several trials to see
whether the child understands and can
carry out the
self-monitoring procedure
Step 12: Conduct accuracy checks
randomly and inform the child that you will
be doing so
Step 13: Give the child reinforcements
contingent on recording accurate data
Self-Monitoring Assessment [5]

Sources
Korotitsch, W. J., & Nelson-Gray, R. O.
(1999). An overview of self-monitoring
research in assessment and treatment.
Psychological Assessment, 11(4), 415–
425.
Self-Monitoring Assessment [6]

Sources
Mace, F. C., & Kratochwill, T. R. (1988).
Self-monitoring. In J. C. Witt, S. N. Elliott,
& F. M. Gresham. (Eds.), Handbook of
behavior therapy in education (pp. 489–
522). New York, NY: Plenum.
Computer Based Assessment and
Future Directions [1]


Some assessment tasks are best
performed with computer-only
assessment.
For example, when you want information
about response times in milliseconds or
when you must administer a stimulus at a
specific time, computer-only testing is
optimal.
Computer Based Assessment and
Future Directions [2]

Another promising area for use of
computer-only test administration is the
Automated Neuropsychological
Assessment Metrics (ANAM), which may
provide measures of continuous
performance, learning, memory, logical
reasoning, spatial processing,
mathematical processing, and visuospatial discrimination.
Computer Based Assessment and
Future Directions [3]



Some practitioners use email to send and
receive interview data, background
information, and assessment information
for computer-based processing.
Computer-generated reports raise many
legal, ethical, clinical, professional, and
philosophical issues.
Computer records, like all assessment
records, must be kept confidential.
Computer Based Assessment and
Future Directions [4]


Clinical professionals need to establish
procedures for determining who has
access to computer equipment, where and
how information is stored, and whether
reports will be sent by email to other
parties.
Guidelines are still evolving along with
computer technology.
Scatter and Validity of WISC-IV
FSIQ [1]




Mark H. Daniel’s Research
Fiorello et al. (2007) and Hale et al. (2007)
contend that FSIQ should not be
interpreted when index scores are diverse
Simulation methodology used to
investigate index score scatter
Results showed that FSIQ is equally valid
at all levels of scatter
FSIQ can be interpreted in populations
with variable index-score profiles
Scatter and Validity of WISC-IV
FSIQ [2]

SOURCES
Fiorello, C. A., Hale, J. B., Holdnack, J. A.,
Kavanagh, J. A., Terrell, J., & Long, L.
(2007). Interpreting intelligence test results
for children with disabilities: Is global
intelligence relevant? Applied
Neuropsychology, 14(1), 2–12.
Scatter and Validity of WISC-IV
FSIQ [3]

SOURCES
Hale, J. B., Fiorello, C. A., Kavanagh, J.
A., Holdnack, J. A., & Aloe, A. M. (2007).
Is the demise of IQ interpretation justified?
A response to special issue authors.
Applied Neuropsychology, 14(1), 37–51.
Scatter and Validity of WISC-IV
FSIQ [4]
SOURCES
Daniel, M. H. (2007). ‘Scatter’ and the
construct validity of FSIQ: Comment on
Fiorello et al. (2007). Applied
Neuropsychology, 14(4), 291–295.
WISC–IV and
Traumatic Brain Injury [1]
Allen, Thaler, Donohue, & Mayfield (2010)
 N = 61
 Ages 6 to 16 yrs., M = 12.1 yrs.
 FSIQ = 85
 VC = 88
 PR = 92
 WM = 90
 PS = 82
WISC–IV and
Traumatic Brain Injury [2]
SOURCE
Allen, D. N., Thaler, N. S., Donohue, B., &
Mayfield, J. (2010). WISC–IV profiles in
children with traumatic brain injury:
Similarities to and differences from the
WISC–III. Psychological Assessment, Vol
22(1), 57–64. doi: 10.1037/a0016056
WISC–IV and
Academic Achievement [1]
Mayes & Calhoun (2007)
 N = 92, ADHD and LD
 Ages 6 to 16 yrs.
 FSIQ = 108
WISC–IV and
Academic Achievement [2]




WIAT-II and FSIQ
(Mayes & Calhoun, 2007)
Word Reading r = .63
Reading Comprehension r = .64
Numerical Operations r = .76
Written Expression r = .54
WISC–IV and
Academic Achievement [3]
WISC-IV Indexes and WIAT-II Subtests*
(Mayes & Calhoun, 2007)
 VCI r = .43 to .64
 PRI r = .38 to .62
 WMI r = .53 to .64
 PSI r = .33 to .52
 *Word Reading, Reading Comprehension,
Numerical Operations, and Written
Expression
WISC–IV and
Academic Achievement [4]
SOURCE
Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2007).
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–
Third and –Fourth Edition predictors of
academic achievement in children with
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
School Psychology Quarterly, Vol 22(2),
234–249. doi: 10.1037/10453830.22.2.234
Executive Functions in Children
[1]
Executive Functions (EF) Allow Child to
(Baron, 2004):
 Perceive stimuli from his or her
environment
 Respond adaptively
 Flexibly change direction
 Anticipate future goals
Executive Functions in Children
[2]



EF Allow Child to
(Baron, 2004) (Cont.):
Consider consequences
Respond in an integrated or commonsense way
Utilize all of the above to serve a common
purposive goal
Executive Functions in Children
[3]
SOURCE
Baron, I. S. (2004). Neuropsychological
evaluation of the child. New York, NY:
Oxford University Press
Executive Functions in Children
[4]
Primary Cognitive Abilities Involved in EF
 Planning and goal setting
 Organizing
 Prioritizing
 Working memory
 Shifting or mental flexibility
 Inhibition
 Self-regulation
Executive Functions in Children
[5]
Working Memory vs. Short-Term Memory
 Working memory— structures and
processes used for temporarily storing and
manipulating information
 Short-term memory—storage of
information without involving the
manipulation or organization of material
held in memory
 Updating—addition or subtraction of
information from working memory
Executive Functions in Children
[6]



Intelligence and EF
Relationship between intelligence and EF
not clear
Overall, intelligence and EF measures
overlap in some areas but not in others
Working memory appears to be related
both intelligence and EF
Executive Functions in Children
[7]
EF and Academic Tasks
1.Written essay:
 Planning and defining the first step
 Rephrasing and paraphrasing the written
work (cognitive flexibility)
 Organization and prioritizing (crafting a
complete thought)
Executive Functions in Children
[8]
EF and Academic Tasks (Cont.)
2.Independent studying, homework, and
long-term projects:
 Planning ahead (time management)
 Acquiring materials and information
 Setting long-term goals (completing tasks)
 Self-regulation (sequencing information)
Executive Functions in Children
[9]
EF and Academic Tasks (Cont.)
2.Independent studying, homework, and
long-term projects:
 Self-monitoring (remembering to submit
completed assignments by a specific
time)
 Cognitive flexibility (ability to modify how
one goes about doing projects).
Executive Functions in Children
[10]
EF and Academic Tasks (Cont.)
3.Test taking:
 Prioritizing and focusing on relevant
themes
 Managing time
 Allocating sufficient time to answer all
questions on the test
 Completing the test within the time limits.
Executive Functions in Children
[11]
EF and Academic Tasks (Cont.)
4. Higher grades:
 Coordinate and integrate multiple skills
independently
Executive Functions in Children
[12]






How EF Are Compromised
Attention difficulties
Fatigue
Anxiety
Stress
Depression
Motivational deficits
Executive Functions in Children
[13]



Children with Disabilities
ADHD—deficits in attention and inhibitory
control
Learning disabilities—problems with selfregulation, problem solving, cognitive
flexibility, and organization
Autistic spectrum disorder—deficits in
planning ability, flexibility, responding to
social cues, and regulating social
interactions
Executive Functions in Children
[14]


EF and Frontal Lobes
Associated but also dependent on the
links with others areas of the brain
Involve a network of brain structures and
not exclusively localized in the frontal
lobes
Executive Functions in Children
[15]
Assessment of EF
Tests cannot measure completely:
 Planning
 Problem-solving
 Organizational ability
 Self-regulation
Scores on tests of EF may give too static a
picture of the child’s functioning
Executive Functions in Children
[16]
Assessment of EF (Cont.)
Assessment Techniques
 Interviewing the child
 Interviewing the child’s parents
 Interviewing the child’s teachers
 Observing the child at school, in the test
situation, at home, and other settings
 Administering appropriate tests of EF
Executive Functions in Children
[17]
Assessment of EF (Cont.)
Assessment Techniques
 Analyzing task demands and how the child
meets them
 Analyzing child’s completed home work
assignments
 Analyzing the child’s test performance
 Using testing-of-limits procedures
Executive Functions in Children
[18]
Note of Caution
1. Complexity of EF Tasks (van der Sluis,
de Jong, & van der Leij (2007):
 Executive function tasks tend to be
complex and multi-cognitive in nature
 May be difficult to know which function(s)
is(are) impaired or not impaired
Executive Functions in Children
[19]
SOURCE
van der Sluis, S., de Jong, P., & van der
Leij, A. (2007). Executive functioning in
children, and its relations with reasoning,
reading, and arithmetic. Intelligence, 35,
427–449. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.09.001
Executive Functions in Children
[20]
Note of Caution (Cont.):
2. Reliability of EF Tasks (Friedman &
Miyake, 2004):
 Reliability may suffer when children gain
experience with tasks
 Tasks most valid when novel
Executive Functions in Children
[21]
SOURCE
Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2004). The
relations among inhibition and interference
control processes: A latent variable
analysis. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General, 133(1), 101–135.
doi:10.1037/0096-3445-133.1.101
Executive Functions in Children
[22]
Note of Caution (Cont.):
3. Validity of BRIEF (Toplak, Bucciarelli,
Jain, & Tannock, 2009):
 BRIEF scores may not correspond to
performance on EF tasks measuring the
same area
 Respondents’ knowledge about child may
be imperfect
Executive Functions in Children
[23]
SOURCE
Toplak, M., Bucciarelli, S., Jain, U., &
Tannock, R. (2009). Executive functions:
Performance–based measures and the
Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive
Function (BRIEF) in adolescents with
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD). Child Neuropsychology, 15(1),
53–72. doi:10.1080/09297040802070929
Executive Functions in Children
[24]



Interviewing an Older Age Child
Do you plan events in advance? Tell me
more about that.
Can you start and stop a conversation
appropriately? Tell me more about that.
Do you adjust your voice depending on the
setting? Tell me more about that.
Executive Functions in Children
[25]
Interviewing an Older Age Child (Cont.)
 Do you adjust the topic of conversation
depending on the setting? Tell me more
about that.
 What is your ability to initiate activities
such as going out of the house?
 How do you arrange things so that you get
to school on time?
Executive Functions in Children
[26]
Interviewing an Older Age Child (Cont.)
 How well do you express your emotions?
Tell me more about that.
 Do you think that you have a full range of
emotions or just a few emotions? . . . Tell
me more about that.
 What future plans do you have?
 Tell me about how your room is organized.
Executive Functions in Children
[27]




Observation in the Classroom
Has materials ready at the beginning of a
lesson
Begins and stops working appropriately
Switches from one task to another task
appropriately
Recognizes that another children’s
feelings and ideas are equally important
Executive Functions in Children
[28]






Observation in the Classroom (Cont.)
Is considerate of others
Has difficulty with writing
Organizes his or her desk and backpack
appropriately
Completes task assignments on time
Plans, recalls, and uses decoding
strategies
Reads words fluently
Executive Functions in Children
[29]



Observation in the Classroom (Cont.)
Understands and uses information read in
a sentence, passage, or longer article
Make appropriate inferences when reading
Uses appropriate strategies for reading
comprehension
Executive Functions in Children
[30]


Observation in the Classroom (Cont.)
Responds appropriately when called upon
by the teacher
Shows the ability to listen and glean
needed information for the lecture
Executive Functions in Children
[31]
Improving Deficits in EF
Help children with EF deficits learn (Meltzer
& Krishnan, 2007):
 Strategies for planning, organizing,
prioritizing, memorizing, shifting flexibly,
and checking their work
 How, when, and why specific strategies
can be used for different academic tasks
 Strategies for organizing their time,
materials, ideas, deadlines, and completed
work
Executive Functions in Children
[32]
Improving Deficits in EF (Cont.)
Help children with EF deficits learn (Meltzer
& Krishnan, 2007):
 How to modify strategies to match their
own learning styles
 Different ways of applying strategies to
different academic tasks and settings
 Self-monitoring skills, including how to
identify their most common mistakes
Executive Functions in Children
[33]
Improving Deficits in EF (Cont.)
Help children with EF deficits learn (Meltzer
& Krishnan, 2007):
 Learning that “learning how to learn” is an
important step in doing well in school
Executive Functions in Children
[34]
SOURCE
Meltzer, L., & Krishnan, K. (2007). Executive
function difficulties and learning
disabilities. In L. Meltzer (Eds.), Executive
function in education: From theory to
practice (pp. 77–105). New York, NY:
Guilford Press.
Executive Functions in Children
[35]



Enhancing Self-Regulation
(Ylvisaker & Feeney, 2008):
Encouraging parents to provide a stable,
organized, and predicable a home
environment
Encouraging important adults to form
reasonable emotional attachments with
the children
Encouraging parents to provide adequate
opportunities for their children to exercise
control over events in the children’s lives
Executive Functions in Children
[36]


Enhancing Self-Regulation
(Ylvisaker & Feeney, 2008): (Cont.)
Encouraging parents to follow an
“authoritative/responsive” style of
parenting (neither too permissive or too
authoritarian)
Encouraging parents and teachers to
reward self-regulation, autonomy, and
personal responsibility
Executive Functions in Children
[37]



Enhancing Self-Regulation
(Ylvisaker & Feeney, 2008): (Cont.)
Giving children opportunities to work with
adults who actively use self-regulatory
strategies for themselves and who foster
self-regulatory skills in the children
Giving children opportunities to develop
effective language development
Giving children opportunities at home,
school, and neighborhood to develop a
coherent sense of personal identity
Executive Functions in Children
[38]
SOURCE
Ylvisaker, M., & Feeney, T. (2008). Helping
children without making them helpless:
Facilitating development of executive selfregulation in children and adolescents. In
V. Anderson, R. Jacobs, & P. J. Anderson,
(Eds.), Executive functions and the frontal
lobes: A lifespan perspective. (pp. 409–
438). Philadelphia, PA: Taylor & Francis.
Executive Functions in Children
[39]
Recommended Book
Dawson, P., & Guare, R. (2010). Executive
skills in children and adolescents: A
practical guide to assessment and
intervention (2nd ed.). New York, NY:
Guilford Press.
Executive Functions in Children
[40]


Assessment Procedures
Beery Buktenica Developmental Test of
Visual-Motor Integration (BVMI; Beery &
Beery, 2004): Planning and organization
Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive
Functions (BRIEF; Gioia, Isquith, Guy, &
Kenworthy, 2000): Inhibition, shifting,
emotional control, initiation, working
memory, planning and organization, and
self-monitoring
Executive Functions in Children
[41]



Assessment Procedures (Cont.)
Bender-Gestalt (Bender, 1938): Planning
and organization
Conners’ Continuous Performance Test II
(CPT II; Conners, & MHS Staff, 2000):
Inhibition
Delis Kaplan Executive Function System
(D–KEFS; Delis, Kaplan, & Kramer, 2001):
Flexibility and fluency
Executive Functions in Children
[42]


Assessment Procedures (Cont.)
Interview: Planning and organization
NEPSY–II (Korkman, Kirk, & Kemp, 2007):
Shifting, attention, inhibition, planning and
organization, self-monitoring, selfregulation, flexibility, novel-problem
solving, working memory, and fluency
Executive Functions in Children
[43]

Assessment Procedures (Cont.)
WISC–IV (Block Design, Coding, Digit
Span, and Letter Number-Sequencing;
Wechsler, 2003): Planning and
organization, Selective and sustained
attention, maintaining a set, selfmonitoring, and working memory
Executive Functions in Children
[44]

Assessment Procedures (Cont.)
Woodcock-Johnson III Test of Cognitive
Abilities (WJ III-COG-Executive Process
Cluster and Broad Attention Cluster;
Woodcock, Schrank, Mather, & McGrew,
2007): Inhibition, flexibility, planning, and
attention
Executive Functions in Children
[45]


Source
Beery, K. E., & Beery, N. A. (2004). Beery
VMI (5th ed.). Minneapolis, MN: NCS
Pearson.
Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., &
Kenworthy, L. (2000). Behavior Rating
Inventory of Executive Function. Lutz, FL:
Psychological Assessment Resources.
Executive Functions in Children
[46]


Sources
Bender, L. (1938). A Visual Motor Gestalt
Test and its clinical use. American
Orthopsychiatric Association Research
Monograph, No. 3.
Conners, C. K., & MHS Staff. (2000).
Conners’ Continuous Performance Test II
(CPT II). North Tonawanda, NY: MultiHealth Systems.
Executive Functions in Children
[47]


Sources
Delis, D. C., Kaplan, E. F., & Kramer, J. H.
(2001). The Delis-Kaplan Executive
Function System. San Antonio, TX: The
Psychological Corporation.
Korkman, M., Kirk, U., & Kemp, S. L.
(2007). NEPSY II: A developmental
neuropsychological assessment:
Administration Manual. San Antonio, TX:
The Psychological Corporation.
Executive Functions in Children
[48]


Sources
Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children–Fourth Edition. San
Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.
Woodcock, R. W., Shrank, F. A., McGrew,
K. S., & Mather, N. (2007). WoodcockJohnson® III Normative Update (WJ III
NU). Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside.
RIAS [p. 688-1]


STRUCTURE
Verbal Intelligence
 Guess What
 Verbal Reasoning
Nonverbal Intelligence
 Odd-Item Out
 What’s Missing
RIAS [p. 688-2]
STRUCTURE


Composite Memory
 Verbal Memory
 Nonverbal Memory
Composite Intelligence Index:
Verbal Intelligence + Nonverbal Intelligence
RIAS Validity [1]
Results of construct validity and convergent
validity studies:
 General factor is supported (CIX)
 Verbal index is supported (VIX)
 Nonverbal index is not supported (NIX)
 Memory subtest should be separated from
IQ, has poor g loadings
RIAS Validity [2]
Results of construct validity and convergent
validity studies: (Cont.)
 In one case, RIAS Nonverbal IQ was 10
points higher than WAIS–III Performance
Scale IQ
 Recommendation is to use the CIX but it
may yield higher scores than the Wechsler
tests
RIAS Validity [3]

SOURCES
Beaujean, A. A., Firmin, M. W., Michonski,
J. D., Berry, T., & Johnson, C. (2010). A
multitrait-multimethod examination of the
Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales
in a college sample. Assessment, 17(3),
347–360. doi:10.1177/1073191109356865
RIAS Validity [3]

SOURCES
Beaujean, A. A., McGlaughlin, S. M., &
Margulies, A. S. (2009). Factorial validity
of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment
Scales for referred students. Psychology
in the Schools, 46(10), 932–950.
doi:10.1002/pits.20435
RIAS Validity [3]

SOURCES
Dombrowski, S. C., Watkins, M. W., &
Brogan, M. J. (2009). An exploratory
investigation of the factor structure of the
Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales
(RIAS). Journal Of Psychoeducational
Assessment, 27(6), 494–507.
doi:10.1177/0734282909333179
RIAS Validity [4]

SOURCES
Krach, S. K., Loe, S. A., Jones, W., &
Farrally, A. (2009). Convergent validity of
the Reynolds intellectual assessment
scales (RIAS) using the Woodcock—
Johnson tests of cognitive ability, third
edition (WJ-III) with university students.
Journal Of Psychoeducational
Assessment, 27(5), 355–365.
doi:10.1177/0734282909331749
RIAS Validity [4]

SOURCES
Nelson, J. M., Canivez, G. L., Lindstrom,
W., & Hatt, C. V. (2007). Higher-order
exploratory factor analysis of the Reynolds
Intellectual Assessment Scales with a
referred sample. Journal of School
Psychology, 45(4), 439–456.
doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2007.03.003.
RIAS Validity [4]

SOURCES
Smith, B. L., McChristian, C. L., Smith, T.
D., & Meaux, J. (2009). The relationship of
the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment
Scales and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale–Third Edition. Perceptual and Motor
Skills, 109(1), 30–40
RIAS Validity [5]

SOURCES
Umphress, T. B. (2008). A comparison of
low IQ scores from the Reynolds
Intellectual Assessment Scales and the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Third
Edition. Intellectual and Developmental
Disabilities, 46(3), 229–233.
doi:10.1352/2008.46:229-233
WJ III COG [p. 698-1]
NONUNIFORM RANGE OF
STANDARD SCORES
Example 1: A 15-year-old with 1 point on 14
tests
 GIA = 1
 Auditory Working Memory = 27
 Analysis-Synthesis = 40
WJ III COG [p. 698-2]
NONUNIFORM RANGE OF
STANDARD SCORES
Example 2: A 15-year-old with the highest
score on 14 tests
 GIA = 177
 Concept Formation = 129
 Incomplete Words = 200
WJ III COG [p. 700]
ITEM GRADIENTS
Research by Krasa (2007)
Results
 Only 7 of 20 cognitive tests have adequate
item gradients
 Remaining 13 tests are too steeply graded
Conclusion
 The 13 tests provide less sensitive
measures of ability
WJ III COG [p. 700]

SOURCE
Krasa, N. (2007). Is the WoodcockJohnson III a test for all seasons? Ceiling
and item gradient considerations in its use
with older students. Journal of
Psychoeducational Assessment, 25(1), 3–
16. doi:10.1177/0734282906291768.
WJ III COG [1]




SCORING ERRORS
N = 36 graduate students, 108 protocols
Total of 500 errors
46% of the protocols had 0 or 1 error
Most frequently occurring errors:
 Use of incorrect ceilings
 Failure to record errors
 Failure to encircle the correct row for the
total number correct
WJ III COG [2]

SOURCE
Ramos, E., Alfonso, V. C., &
Schermerhorn, S. M. (2009). Graduate
students' administration and scoring errors
on the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of
Cognitive Abilities. Psychology In The
Schools, 46(7), 650–657.
doi:10.1002/pits.20405