Murray A. Straus
Family Research Laboratory, University of New Hampshire
Durham, NH 03824 603-862-2594 murray.straus@unh.edu
Website: http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2
• Presented at the International Association of Mental Health
Services annual meeting, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 26 May
2010
• Other publications on this and related issues can be downloaded from http//:www.pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2
• The work was supported by National Institute of Mental Health grant T32MH15161 and by the University of New Hampshire
ID92 1

1.
What is the prevalence of physical assault on partners
A. Over the life course
B. By men and women
C. In economically developed and developing nations?
2. To what extent are mental health problems a risk factor for partner violence?
3. Is the relation of mental health problems to partner assault different:
A. For men and women?
B. In economically developed and developing nations?
4. What are the implications for prevention and treatment of physical violence against partners?
 Answer using results of several studies, but especially the
International Dating Violence Study
ID92 2

QUESTION 1
What is the prevalence of physical assault on partners
(“Partner violence” or PV from here on)
A. By men and women
B. Over the life course
C. In economically developed and developing nations?
All data is on perpetration
ID92 3

PHYSICAL ASSAULT SCALE
Of The Revised Conflict Tactics Scales *
Minor Physical Assault:
• Threw something at partner that could hurt
• Twisted my partner’s arm or hair
• Pushed or shoved my partner
• Grabbed my partner
• Slapped my partner
Severe Physical Assault:
• Punched or hit my partner with something that could hurt
• Choked my partner
• Slammed my partner against a wall
• Beat up my partner
• Burned or scalded my partner
• Kicked my partner
• Used a knife or gun on my partner
ID92
Alpha: By participant - Males = .786, Females = .774, Total = .777
By partner - Males = .785, Females = .802, Total = .797
* For papers on this test, see http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2
4

Table 1. Ten Examples of the More Than 200 Studies Showing Gender Symmetry in Perpetration of Physical. Assault
Study Severity Of
Assault
Perpetrator
Male Female
Canadian National Survey (Lupri, 1990) Minor
Severe
Canadian General Social Survey (1999) Overall rate
British Crime Survey (1996) Overall rate
National Co-morbidity Study (Kessler, 2001) Minor
Severe
National Alcohol and Family Violence Survey (Straus, 1995) Overall rate
Severe
Dunedin Health and Development Study (US Dept of justice 1999) Overall rate
National Violence Against Women Survey (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000) Overall rate
Youth Risk Behavior Survey (Centers For Disease Control, 2006) Overall rat
National Youth Survey (Wofford-Mihalic, Elliott, & Menard,,1994). Overall
Severe
% of Emergency room visits for PV (Annals of Emergency Medicine )
17.8%
10.1%
7.0%
4.2%
17.4%
6.5%
9.1%
1.9%
27.0 %
1.3%
23.3%
12.9%
8.0%\
4.1%
17.7%
6.2%
9.5%
4.5%
34.0%
0.9%
8.8% 8.9%
20.2%
5.7%
34.1%
3.8%
19.0% 20.0%
ID92 5

• World Health Organization - Global School-based Health Survey
• Students 13 to 15 years old
• Asked if they had been hit, slapped or hurt on purpose by a boyfriend or girlfriend in the past 12 months
Percent “Yes”
Jordan
Namibia
Swaziland
Girls Boys
15 29
9
6
16
8
Zambia ` 18 23
Global School-based Health Survey. Geneva: World Health Organization 2006 http://www.cdc.gov/gshs or http://www.who.int/school_youth_health/gshs This data has now been removed from the WHO files.
ID92 6

THE INTERNATIONAL DATING
VIOLENCE STUDY http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/ID.htm

17,404 Students At 68 Universities
 In 32 Nations
 All Major World Regions
 Convenience Samples
Questionnaire Completed In Class

Analyses Control For And/Or Examines
Interactions With:
* Gender and Age
* Score on Social Desirability
Response set scale
* Other controls as needed for specific analyses
 VALIDITY OF THE DATA
• Concurrent validity: correlated with recognized international statistics
• Construct Validity: Show in many published papers
ID92 7

ID92 8

Iran
ASSAULT, TOTAL - BY PARTNER % in rank order of national context
(CTATPP_1J )
Median: Total = 25.0% , Males = 24.8%, Females = 26.2%, F% of M = 106%
High Half Of Nations
Total Male Feml
Low Half Of Nations
Total Male Feml
41.0
43.0
40.0
South Korea 24.7
19.5
28.3
Mexico
India
Great Britain
Tanzania
South Africa
New Zealand
Greece
China -Taiwan
39.5
35.8
33.3
33.1
33.0
30.8
30.3
29.0
21.2
40.9
33.9
29.2
28.6
35.7
34.5
17.9
39.0
Lithuania
34.2
Germany
33.1
Venezuela
37.2
Canada
33.3
Australia
29.4
Guatemala
29.0
Hungary
32.5
Brazil
24.4
24.3
24.1
23.1
22.7
22.7
21.7
20.4
18.5
26.4
23.5
21.8
28.6
20.9
27.5
16.7
27.4
23.4
24.5
23.6
21.5
24.7
19.1
22.2
Belgium 28.2
25.0
29.1
Singapore 18.5
13.4
20.8
Russia
Romania
United States
China
China-Hong K
Netherlands
ID92
28.0
27.9
27.9
27.0
25.4
25.2
29.2
41.7
29.1
24.7
24.1
31.3
27.1
Switzerland
26.4
Japan
27.3
Sweden
28.4
Malta
26.0
Portugal
24.3
Israel
17.7
17.3
16.9
16.5
13.6
12.6
23.3
19.4
22.7
31.8
11.9
15.8
16.0
15.5
15.1
12.3
14.5
11.9
ASSAULT RATE
High everywhere but also big differences between nations
Percent of women who assault partner is similar to the percent of men in all nations
9

ASSAULT, SEVERE - BY PARTNER % in rank order of national context
(CTASPP_1 )
Median : Total = 9.1%, Males = 9.1%, Females = 8.5%, F% of M = 93%
High Half Of Nations Low Half Of Nations
Tanzania
Total Male Feml
17.1
12.4
12.9
Russia
Total
9.1
Male
8.2
Feml
2.5
Greece
Iran
15.6
16.4
15.3
17.4
11.4
Canada
8.5
Belgium
8.0
7.8
7.8
5.3
15.0
8.1
Mexico
India
China
China -Taiwan
Great Britain
Venezuela
South Korea
South Africa
China-Hong K
United States
Australia
Romania
Guatemala
ID92
15.1
14.7
9.1
9.1
13.6
11.5
13.6
15.4
13.4
13.6
13.4
14.3
12.6
9.1
11.9
18.0
11.1
10.2
10.5
10.9
9.4
11.9
9.4
12.5
9.1
8.8
2.7
Germany
5.7
Japan
13.4
Brazil
10.3
Hungary
9.4
New Zealand
12.9
Portugal
16.3
Israel
10.8
Lithuania
16.4
Malta
10.8
Switzerland
6.0
Singapore
4.7
Netherlands
4.5
Sweden
4.2
3.9
2.7
4.9
4.9
4.7
7.6
6.8
6.5
6.2
6.2
5.8
5.7
2.3
4.5
8.2
3.0
12.5
3.1
8.1
4.8
7.7
9.8
7.1
5.1
5.3
13.0
6.2
17.0
4.9
5.9
7.4
15.3
6.2
3.7
14.7
9.1
9.7
15.0
Rates of severe assault also high
Approximately equal rates for men and women also applies to severe assaults
10

ASSAULTS ON MARITAL AND DATING PARTNERS
DECREASES OVER THE LIFE COURSE
* For men and women
* In economically developed and developing nations
ID92 11

DECREASE IN SPOUSAL ASSAULT IN FIRST
SEVEN YEARS OF MARRIAGE*
383 newlywed couples. At the time of marriage, and Yr 1, 2, 4, & 7
H toW W to H Assault
* Brian M. Quigley, Lorig Kachadourian, & Kenneth E. Leonard
ID92
K. Leonard et al
13

DOMESTIC ASSAULTS BY BOTH MEN AND WOMEN DECLINE WITH AGE
British National Crime Survey, 1996
ID92
Mirrlees-Black, C. (1999). Domestic
Violence: Findings from a new British
Crime Survey self-completion questionnaire: A Research, development and statistics directorate report (Vol. Home Office
Research Study 191). London: Home
Office
.
14

WHEN THERE IS VIOLENCE MUTUAL VIOLENCE PREDOMINATES
SIX OF THE 17 GENERAL POPULATION STUDIES SHOWING
MUTUAL VIOLENCE PREDOMINATES, EXCEPT FOR KOREA
Among Violent Couples:
Study
1. National Family Violence Survey,1975
2. National Co-morbidity Survey. 1990-02
3. National Long. Study of Adolescent Health, 2001
4. International Dating Violence Study, 2001-06
5. International Parenting Study 2008
6. Korean national survey Any Violence
Severe Violence
Both
Violent
48%
54%
50%
55%
39%
12%
17%
Male
Only
25%
23%
15%
16%
11%
49%
70%
1. Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. J., & Steinmetz, S. K. (1980 (2006)). Behind closed doors: Violence in the American family New York: Doubleday/Anchor
Books (Re-issued Transaction Publications, 2006 with a new forward)
2..As reported by women. Kessler, R. C., Molnar, B. E., Feurer, I. D., & Appelbaum, M. (2001). Patterns and mental health predictors of domestic violence in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. International Journal Of Law And Psychiatry, 24(4-5), 487-508.
3..Whitaker, D. J., Haileyesus, T., Swahn, M., & Saltzman, L. S. (2007). Differences in Frequency of Violence and Reported Injury Between Relationships
With Reciprocal and Nonreciprocal Intimate Partner Violence American Journal of Public Health, 97(5), 941-947.
4. Straus, M. A. (2008). Dominance and symmetry in partner violence by male and female university students in 32 nations. Children and Youth Services
Review, 30, 252-275.
5. Straus, M. A. (2009). Violence between parents reported by male and female university students: Prevalence, severity, chronicity, and mutuality. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 1(1), 4-12..
6.. Kim, Jae-Yop and Emery, Clifton (2003) Marital Power, Conflict, Norm Consensus, and Marital Violence in a Nationally Representative
Sample of Korean Couples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 18:197-219 .
16
Female
Only
27%
24%
35%
29%
29%
11%
13%
ID92

MUTUALITY OF ASSAULT PERPETRATION IN DATING
RELATIONSHIPS OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN 32 NATIONS
Study of 14,252 students in a dating relationship.
This chart is for the 4,239 who reported one or more incidents of violence
.
ID92
Straus, M. A. (2007). Dominance and symmetry in partner violence by male and female university students in
32 nations. Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 252-275.
17

MUTUAL VIOLENCE
PREDOMINATES
ACCORDING TO
BOTH MEN AND
WOMEN
(Percentages are for the part of the sample in which at least one assault occurred in the previous 12 months
Can be a high percent of a small number of couples(as in
Sweden)
ID92
ASSAULT ,TOTAL - % BOTH VIOLENT (AMONG VIOLENT RELATIONSHIPS)
AS REPORTED BY MEN AND WOMEN (In rank order of national context
(CUAT_3)
Iran
Median: Total = 68.7%, Males = 74.3%, Females = 67.3%
High Half Of Nations Low Half Of Nations
Total Male Feml Total Male Feml
92.6
100.0
89.8
Canada 68.6
73.6
67.2
Tanzania
South Africa
India
Japan
Great Britain
Mexico
Lithuania
South Korea
Russia
Netherlands
Brazil
Hungary
United States
Romania
Belgium
90.5
89.7
89.5
100.0
81.1
88.9
79.3
85.7
77.7
80.0
77.3
77.8
71.9
88.9
71.4
70.0
71.2
75.5
71.1
100.0
71.0
76.5
69.8
75.0
69.5
72.7
69.0
54.5
68.8
67.3
91.2
Venezuela
88.9
China-Taiwan
78.6
Guatemala
73.3
Portugal
77.4
New Zealand
77.3
Australia
67.3
Germany
72.1
China
69.0
Switzerland
67.3
Greece
68.9
Israel
66.7
Sweden
68.2
Singapore
71.1
China-Hong K
69.1
Malta
63.8
63.5
63.2
61.9
61.7
68.4
66.7
66.0
65.2
59.8
58.7
58.0
57.9
54.3
50.0
40.0
53.8
64.4
71.3
63.6
56.7
87.5
80.0
87.5
70.8
81.8
71.8
41.7
59.2
70.3
66.0
62.6
58.4
61.0
76.1
63.6
56.7
58.0
55.6
53.8
53.2
62.2
52.9
46.7

SEVERE ASSAULT - % BOTH VIOLENT (AMONG VIOLENT RELATIONSHIPS)
AS REPORTED BY MEN AND WOMEN (in rank order of national context
(CUAS_3J)
Japan
Median : Total = 57%, AS REPORTED BY: Males = 62, Females = 56%
High Half Of Nations Low Half Of Nations
Total Male Feml Total Male Feml
74.0
75.0
85.7
United States 57.0
60.4
55.7
Tanzania
Brazil
India
Portugal
South Korea
Iran
Venezuela
Israel
Canada
South Africa
Mexico
Great Britain
Greece
China -Taiwan
Switzerland
ID92
73.0
72.2
73.3
57.1
70.6
33.3
69.6
100.0
67.7
75.0
66.7
100.0
64.3
64.7
64.0
61.5
75.0
63.0
61.1
100.0
60.5
59.7
50.0
33.3
59.1
58.3
58.3
100.0
57.1
83.3
72.7
Guatemala
81.8
Germany
78.6
Russia
58.8
Australia
65.2
Lithuania
57.1
Belgium
64.0
Netherlands
61.9
China-Hong K
61.1
New Zealand
56.3
Singapore
61.8
Romania
63.5
Hungary
59.4
China
50.0
Sweden
46.7
Malta
48.5
48.3
47.8
47.5
46.7
55.6
55.3
55.2
53.6
46.2
44.1
42.1
39.8
25.0
24.0
33.3
46.2
66.7
70.6
50.0
44.4
50.0
81.3
80.0
0.0
66.7
57.1
38.1
40.0
0.0
51.9
48.6
41.2
42.7
46.2
66.7
57.6
45.2
47.8
54.5
41.9
33.3
40.3
21.1
14.3
According to both women & men: mutual violence is predominant for severe assaults as well as minor assaults
Percent mutual is close to results of other studies
19

IN ALL 32 NATIONS IN THE INTERNATIONAL DATING
VIOLENCE STUDY, AND IN OVER 200 OTHER STUDIES THAT
HAVE DATA FOR BOTH MEN AND WOMEN
(Most studies obtain data only on female victims/male perpetrators)

About the same percent of women as men physically assault a partner

When there is violence, the most prevalent pattern is mutual violence

About the same percent of women as men are the first to hit

Self –defense is rarely the instigating cause of assaults by women or men
(Slides available on my) website

The main instigating cause is anger over a behavior of the partner such as o Failure to do household chores o Infidelity o Money o Child care and management etc
ID92 20

IS MUTUALITY A RESULT OF SELF-DEFENSE BY WOMEN?
 World Health Organization report on violence (Krug, 2002)
“Where violence by women occurs it is more likely to be in the form of selfdefense (32, 37, 38)”
 What do references 32, 37, and 38 really show?
 All three asserted that women's violence was primarily in self-defense, but:
#32 Saunders reports that 70% of the minor violence and 60% of the severe violence was NOT in self-defense
#37 DeKesseredy et al. 37% of the minor violence and 43% of the severe violence was initiated by women .
#38 Johnson & Ferraro (Michael P. Johnson & Ferraro, 2000) cites references 32 and 37 but presents no new data
 Six other studies report data on self-defense
* Five of the six found only a small percentage of female violence was in self-defense
* One found high rates of self-defense, but percent in self-defense was slightly greater for men (56%) than for women (42%) (Harned, 2001)
ID92 21

OTHER DATA THAT CONTRADICTS THE SELF-DEFENSE EXPLANATION
 About the same percent of women as men are the first to hit (Straus, 2005)
 About a quarter of partner-violence is female only (see previous table)
 Most usual proximate motivations for violence by women, like motivations of men, are: o Anger o Coercion to do or stop doing something o Punishing partner’s misbehavior (Cascardi & Vivian, 1995; Fiebert &
Gonzalez, 1997; Pearson, 1997)
Example:
Pearson (1997): 90% of women studied assaulted their partner because they were furious or jealous, or frustrated, not to defend themselves.
ID92 22

 Associated with 2 to 5 times higher rate of injury

When violence is mutual there is little difference in injury rates for men and women

This applies to injury sustained and injury inflicted by women and by men, and as reported by women as well as by men
 An additional reason why prevention and treatment must address
`women as well as men

Essential to recognize for effective treatment
ID92 23

WOMEN SUFFER MORE INJURY
THE HIGHER THE ASSAULT RATE BY STUDENTS IN EACH NATION,
THE HIGHER THE SEVERE INJURY RATE, r = 57 r = .18
ID92
Iran Omitted. 31 Nations
24

Question 2:
To what extent are mental health problems a risk factor for partner violence?
Question 3:
Is the relation of mental health problems to partner assault different:
A. For men and women?
B. In economically developed and developing nations ?
ID92 25

THE PERSONAL AND RELATIONSHIPS PROFILE (PRP)
Measures 25 Risk Factors For Partner Violence
16 Scales For Individual Characteristics
ASP Antisocial Personality Symptoms
BOR Borderline Personality Symptoms
CH Criminal History
DEP Depressive Symptoms
GHM Gender Hostility To Men
GHW Gender Hostility to Women
LD Limited Disclosure
POS Positive Parenting
PTS Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms
SUB2 Alcohol Abuse
SUB 3 Drug Abuse
SC
SI
Self-Control
Social Integration
STR Stressful Conditions
SAH Sexual Abuse History
VA
VS
Violence Approval
Violent Socialization
ID92
8 Scales For Couple
Relationships
(Behavior towards or beliefs about the partner)
AM Poor Anger Management
CP Communication Problems
CON Conflict
DOM Dominance
JEL Jealousy
NA Negative Attribution
RC Relationship Commitment
RD Relationship Distress
This test is available on my website
26

ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY IS ASSOCIATED WITH AN 89% INCREASE
IN ASSAULT (COMPARING LOWEST AND HIGHEST SCORING FIFTH)
Assault
Scale
ID92
Anti-Social Personality F=33.5, p<.001
(Anti-Social Personality Quintiles)
27

Assault
Scale
THE LINK BETWEEN ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY & ASSAULT
APPLIES TO BOTH MEN AND WOMEN
Antisocial Personality F=33.5, p<.001
Gender F=160.4, p<.001
Gender*Anti-Social F=5.9, p<.001
Female
Male
ID92
Anti-Social Personality (Quintiles)
28

LINK BETWEEN ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY & ASSAULT APPLIES TO
BOTH ECONOMICALLY DEVELOPING & DEVELOPED NATIONS
Assault
Scale
Low GDP
High GDP
ID92
Anti-Social Personality F=33.5, p<.001
GDP F=29.3, p<.001
Anti-Social*GDP F=2.0, p=.024
Anti-Social Personality
(Quintiles)
29

THE HIGHER THE AVERAGE ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY SCORE OF
STUDENTS IN A NATION, THE HIGHER THE AVERAGE ASSAULT SCORE
FOR THAT NATION
High Antisocial
And high assault nations
Assault
ID92
Antisocial Personality Symptoms r=.5
5
30

THE LINK BETWEEN ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY & ASSAULT IS
STRONGER FOR ASSAULTS BY WOMEN THAN BY MEN, EVEN
THOUGH WOMEN HAVE LOWER ASP
Men Women
ID92 r=.28
Antisocial Personality Symptoms
(Mean for students in each nation) r=.68
31

PRIOR CRIME IS ASSOCIATED WITH A 77% INCREASE IN ASSAULT
Assault
Scale
ID92
Criminal History F=28.7, p<.001
Criminal History (Quintiles)
32

PRIOR CRIME IS ASSOCIATED WITH ASSAULT BY BOTH MEN & WOMEN
EVEN THOUGH WOMEN COMMIT FAR FEWER CRIMES
Female Assault
Scale
ID92
Male
Criminal History F=28.7, p<.001
Gender F=160.5, p<.001
Crim History*Gender F=4.8, p=.001
Criminal History (Quintiles)
33

PRIOR CRIME IS STRONGLY RELATED TO ASSAULTING A DATING
PARTNER AT ALL LEVELS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Low GDP
Assault
Scale
High GDP
ID92
Criminal History F=28.7, p<.001
GDP F=27.9, p<.001
Crim History*GDP F=1.9, p=.031
Criminal History (Quintiles)
34

THE HIGHER THE PRIOR CRIME SCORE OF STUDENTS IN A NATION,
THE HIGHER THE AVERAGE ASSAULT SCORE FOR THAT NATION
Assault
ID92
Criminal History
(Mean for students in each nation) r=.39
35

THE LINK BETWEEN PRIOR CRIME & ASSAULT IS STRONGER FOR
ASSAULTS BY WOMEN THAN BY MEN EVEN THOUGH WOMEN COMMIT
Men
FEWER CRIMES Women
Assault
ID92 r=.13
Criminal History
(Mean for students in each nation) r=.50
36

FOR THE OTHER FIVE MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS
 Only discuss the “main effect” slide (just flash by the others)
 All follow the same pattern
The higher the mental health problem score, the more assault
Same relationship for men and women, and for low and high economic development natipns
 But all available on my website (Google my name)
ID92 37

POST TRAUMATIC STRESS SYMPTOMS
ARE RELATED TO A 77% INCREASE IN PARTNER ASSAULTS
Assault
Scale
ID92
PTS F=24.8, p<.001
Post Traumatic Stress (Quintiles)
38

POST TRAUMATIC STRESS SYMPTOMS
ARE STRONGLY RELATED TO ASSAULT BY WOMEN AS WELL AS MEN
Assault
Scale
Female
Male
ID92
PTS F=24.8, p<.001
Gender F=86.6, p<.001
PTSD*Gender F=1.9, p=.114
Post Traumatic Stress
(Quintiles) 39

POST TRAUMATIC STRESS SYMPTOMS IS RELATED TO
ASSAULTING AT ALL LEVELS OF NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Assault
Scale
Low GDP
High GDP
ID92
Post Traumatic Stress
(Quintiles)
PTS F=24.8, p<.001
GDP F=27.5, p<.001
PTSD*GDP F=1.5, p=.114
40

THE HIGHER THE POST TRAUMATIC STRESS SYMPTOMS OF
STUDENTS IN A NATION, THE HIGHER THE ASSAULT RATE FOR THAT
NATION
Assault
ID92 r=.53
Post Traumatic Stress Symptoms
(Mean for students in each nation)
41

BORDERLINE PERSONALITY SYMPTOMS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH A 66%
INCREASE IN ASSAULTING A DATING PARTNER
Assault
Scale
ID92
Borderline (Quintiles)
Borderline F=53.4, p<.001
42

THE LINK BETWEEN BORDERLINE PERSONALITY SYMPTOMS AND
ASSAULTING A PARTNER APPLIES TO BOTH MEN A ND WOMEN
Assault
Scale Female
Male
ID92
Borderline F=53.4, p<.001
Gender F=103.0, p<.001
Borderline*Gender F=3.8, p=.004
Borderline (Quintiles)
43

BORDERLINE PERSONALITY IS A RISK FACTOR FOR PARTNER VIOLENCE
AT ALL FOUR LEVELS OF NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Assault
Scale
Low GDP
High GDP
ID92
Borderline F=53.4, p<.001
GDP F=25.0, p<.001
Borderline*GDP F=.71, p=.74
Borderline (Quintiles)
44

THE HIGHER THE AVERAGE BORDERLINE PERSONALITY SCORE OF
STUDENTS IN A NATION, THE HIGHER THE RATE OF ASSAULT
Assault
ID92
Borderline Personality Symptoms
(Quintiles) r=.60
45

STUDENTS IN THE TOP FIFTH OF DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS
ARE 39% MORE LIKELY TO ASSAULT A DATING PARTNER
Assault
Scale
ID92
Depression F=9.9, p<.001
Depressive Symptoms (Quintiles)
46

DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS ARE MORE CLOSELY RELATED TO
ASSAULTS BY WOMEN
Depression F=9.9, p<.001
Gender F=100.2, p<.001
Depression*Gender F=4.7, p=.001
Assault
Scale
Female
Male
Depressive Symptoms (Quintiles)
ID92 47

THE HIGHER THE DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS SCORE OF STUDENTS
IN A NATION, THE HIGHER THE AVERAGE ASSAULT SCORE FOR THAT
NATION
Assault
ID92
Depressive Symptoms
(Mean for students in each nation)
48

LINK BETWEEN DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS & ASSAULT IS STRONGER FOR
ASSAULTS BY WOMEN THAN BY MEN
Men Women
Assault
ID92 r=.00
Depressive Symptoms
(Mean for students in each nation) 49 r=.43

ALCOHOL ABUSE IS ASSOCIATED WITH A 29% INCREASE IN ASSAULT
Assault
Scale
ID92
Alcohol Abuse F=6.1, p<.001
Alcohol Abuse (Quintiles)
50

LINK BETWEEN ALCOHOL ABUSE & ASSAULT APPLIES TO BOTH MEN AND
WOMEN
Female
Assault
Scale
Male
ID92
Alcohol Abuse F=6.1, p<.001
Gender F=114.8, p<.001
Alcohol*Gender F=.50, p=.737
Alcohol Abuse (Quintiles)
51

DRUG ABUSE IS ASSOCIATED WITH A 29% INCREASE IN THE ASSAULT
SCALE SCORE
Assault
Scale
ID92
Drug Abuse F=16.6, p<.001
Drug Abuse
(Terciles)
52

THE LINK BETWEEN DRUG ABUSE & ASSAULT APPLIES TO BOTH MEN
AND WOMEN
Assault
Scale
Female
ID92
Male
Drug Abuse F=16.6, p<.001
Gender F=84.3, p<.001
Drug Abuse*Gender F=.05, p=.95
Drug
Abuse(Terciles)
53

1. Partner violence may the most frequent type of assault
2. Like other acts of violence and other crime, it declines rapidly with age
3. Most partner violence is mutual
4. Retaliation is common, self-defense is a low percent of partner violence
5. At least 7 types of Mental health problems are risk factors for partner violence
6. All five of the above apply to:
* Women as well as men
* In developing as well as economically developed nations
ID92 54

ALL OF THE RELATIONSHIPS SHOWN
ARE “RISK FACTORS” NOT A ONE-TO-ONE CAUSE
 A Condition Which Increases The Probability Of A Disease Or Problem
 EXAMPLES:
–Smoking And Death From Smoking Related Disease
1/3 will die by age 65 a from smoking related disease – which means that 2/3 will not
--Pregnancy With HIV And Child Born With HIV
“Only” 20% are born with HIV, i.e. 80% are not
--Corporal Punishment As A Child And Assaulting A Partner
Percent assaulting increased form 8 to 24% -- 3 times more which means that 76% of those spanked the most do not assault
 Almost all social science and most medical research results are like this.
Risk factors not one-to-one relationships
ID92 55

QUESTION 4 What are the implications?
A. THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS
 Change conceptualization of partner violence
From: A manifestation of “patriarchy” as THE cause
TO: Family system conceptualization which recognizes that:
• Most partner violence is mutual
• Patriarchal dominance is just one of many causes
• Mental health and social skill problems are often a cause
ID92 56

B. IMPLICATIONS FOR VICTIM SERVICES.
PREVENTION, AND TREATMENT
 Victim Services: Maintain focus on women because women
• Are injured more and have less resources
• But also provide services for male victims
 Prevention programs: Replace programs directed to men and boys with programs explicitly addressed to both genders – not “gender neutral”
 Treatment of partner violence: Replace “patriarchy” assumption with:
• Initial screening to determine whether it is unilateral or mutual,
• Treatment based on that diagnosis, rather than one size fits all
• Stop blocking anger management and mental health treatment
See Straus, M. A. (2009). Gender symmetry in partner violence: Evidence and implications for prevention and treatment. In D. J. Whitaker & J. R. Lutzker (Eds.),
Preventing partner violence: Research and evidence-based intervention strategies.
Washington D.C. : American Psychological Association.
57
ID92

SOME REFERENCES ON THE INTERNATIONAL DATING VIOLENCE STUDY
Douglas, E. M., & Straus, M. A. (2006). Assault and injury of dating partners by university students
In 19 countries and its relation to corporal punishment experienced as a child. European journal of criminology, 3 (3), 293-318.
Feld, S. L., & Straus, M. A. (1989). Escalation and desistance of wife assault in marriage.
Criminology, 27 (1), 141-161.
Hines, Denise A. and Murray A. Straus. 2007. "Binge Drinking and Violence Against Dating
Partners: The Mediating Effect of Antisocial Traits and Behaviors in a Multi-National
Perspective." Aggressive Behavior 33:441-457.
Medeiros, Rose A. and Murray A. Straus. 2006. "Risk factors for physical violence between dating partners: Implications for gender-inclusive prevention and treatment of family violence. ."
Pp. 59-87 in Family approaches to domestic violence: a practioners guide to genderinclusive research and treatment, edited by J. C. Hamel and T. Nicholls: Springer
(http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2)
Rebellon, Cesar J., Murray A. Straus, and Rose Anne Medeiros. 2008. "Self-control in global perspective: An Empirical assessment of Gottfredson and
Hirschi’s general theory within and across 32 national settings." European journal of criminology 5:331-362.
Straus, M. A. & International Dating Violence Research Consortium. (2004). Prevalence of violence against dating partners by male and female university students worldwide. Violence
Against Women, 10 (7), 790-811.
Straus, M. A. (1999). The controversy over domestic violence by women: A methodological, theoretical, and sociology of science analysis. In X. Ariaga & S. Oskamp (Eds.), Violence in intimate relationships (pp. 17-44). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Straus, M. A. (2001). Beating the devil out of them: Corporal punishment in American families and its effects on children, 2nd edition (2nd ed.). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
ID92
58

Straus, M. A. (2004). Cross-cultural reliability and validity of the revised conflict tactics scales: A study of university student dating couples in 17 nations. Cross-Cultural Research, 38 (4), 407-432.
Straus, M. A. (2009). Gender symmetry in partner violence: Evidence and implications for prevention and treatment. In D. J. Whitaker & J. R. Lutzker (Eds.), Preventing partner violence: Research and evidence-based intervention strategies (pp. 245-271). Washington D.C. : American Psychological
Association.
Straus, M. A. (2009). Why the overwhelming evidence on partner physical violence by women has not been perceived and is often denied. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 18 (6), 552-571.
Straus, M. A. (2009). The National context effect: An Empirical test of the validity of Cross-National research using unrepresentative samples. Cross-Cultural Research, 43 (3), 183-205.
Straus, M. A., & Gelles, R. J. (1990). Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families . New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press.
Straus, M. A., & Ramirez, I. L. (2004). Criminal history and assaults of dating partners: The role of type of prior crime, age of onset, and gender. Violence & Victims, 19 (4), 413-434.
Straus, M. A., & Ramirez, I. L. (2007). Gender symmetry in prevalence, severity, and chronicity of physical aggression against dating partners by University students in Mexico and USA. Aggressive Behavior,
33 , 1-10.
Straus, M. A., & Savage, S. A. (2005). Neglectful behavior by parents in the life history of university students in 17 countries and its relation to violence against dating partners. Child Maltreatment, 10 (2), 124-135
Straus, M. A., Douglas, E. M., & Medeiros, R. A. (in preparation. The primordial violence: Corporal punishment by parents, cognitive development, and crime . .
ID92 59

SELF-DEFENSE REFERENCES
Carrado, M., George, M. J., Loxam, E., Jones, L., & Templar, D. (1996). Aggression in british heterosexual relationships: A descriptive analysis. Aggressive Behavior, 22 , 401-415.
Cascardi, M., & Vivian, D. (1995). Context for specific episodes of marital violence: Gender and severity of violence differences. Journal of Family Violence, 10 , 265-293.
Cascardi, M., & Vivian, D. (1995). Context for specific episodes of marital violence: Gender and severity of violence differences. Journal of Family Violence, 10 , 265-293.
Dekeseredy, W. S., Saunders, D. G., Schwartz, M. D., & Shahid, A. (1997). The meanings and motives for women's use of violence in Canadian college dating relationships: Results from a national survey. Sociological Spectrum, 17 , 199-222.
Felson, R. B., & Messner, S. F. (1998). Disentangling the effects of gender and intimacy on victem precipitation in homicide.
Criminology, 36 , 405-423.
Follingstad, D. R., Wright, S., Lloyd, S., & Sebastian, J. A. (1991). Sex differences in motivations and effects in dating violence. Family Relations, 40 , 51-57.
Harned, M. S. (2001). Abused women or abused men? An examination of the context and outcomes of dating violence.
Violence and Victims, 16 , 269-285.
Johnson, M. P., & Ferraro, K. J. (2000). Research on domestic violence in the 1990's: Making distinctions. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62 , 948-963.
Jurik, N. C., & Gregware, P. (1989). A method for murder: An interactinist analysis of homicides by women.
School of Justice
Studies, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ.
Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B., Lozano, R., & World Health Organization. (2002). World report on violence and health . Geneva: World Health Organization.
Pearson, P. (1997). When she was bad: Women and the myth of innocence . Toronto: Random House.
Pearson, P. (1997). When she was bad: Women and the myth of innocence . Toronto: Random House.
Sarantakos, S. (1998). Husband abuse as self-defence, International Congress of Sociology . Montreal, Canada.
Saunders, D. G. (1986). When battered women use violence: Husband-abuse or self-defense? Violence and Victims, 1 , 47-60.
Sommer, R. (1996). Male and female perpetrated partner abuse: Testing a diathesis-stress model. Winnepeg, Manitoba:
University of Manitoba, PhD Dissertation.
Straus, M. A. (2005). Women's violence toward men is a serious social problem. In D. R. Loseke, R. J. Gelles & M. M.
Cavanaugh (Eds.), Current controversies on family violence (2nd ed., pp. 55-77). Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
ID92 60

(for those who download the slides)
AUS Australia; BEL Belgium; BRA Brazil; CAN Canada; CHE
Switzerland; CHN China; DEU Germany; GBR Great Britain;
GRC Greece; GTM Guatemala; HKG ong Kong; HUN
Hungary; IND India; IRN Iran; ISR Israel; JPN Japan; KOR
South Korea; LTU Lithuania; MEX Mexico; MLT Malta; NLD
Netherlands; NZL New Zealand; PRT Portugal; ROU
Romania; RUS Russia; SGP Singapore; SWE Sweden; TWN
Taiwan; TZA Tanzania; USA United States; VEN Venezuela;
ZAF S Africa
ID92 61

Example of cause that is not a mental health problem
THE MORE DOMINANCE BY ONE PARTNER, THE HIGHER THE
PROBABILITY OF AN ASSAULT, REGARDLESS OF WHETHER
THE DOMINANT PARTNER IS MALE OR FEMALE
Medeiros, R. A., & Straus, M. A. (2006). Risk factors for physical violence between dating partners: Implications for gender-inclusive prevention and treatment of family violence. . In J. C. Hamel & T. Nicholls (Eds.), Family
ID92 62
Springer (also available at http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2)

IN THREE OF THE FOUR LEVELS OF NATIONAL ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT, THE HIGHER THE DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS SCORE, THE
Assault
Scale
GDP F=31.2, p<.001
Depression*GDP F=1.3, p=.22
Low
GDP
High GDP
ID92
Depressive Symptoms (Quintiles)
63

THE HIGHER THE EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN IN A NATION, THE LOWER THE
DOMINANCE OF MEN IN DATING RELATIONSHIPS (29 Nations
ID92
Partial r = .-.69
64

THE HIGHER THE DRUG ABUSE SCORE OF STUDENTS
IN A NATION, THE HIGHER THE AVERAGE ASSAULT SCORE FOR THAT
NATION
Assault
ID92
Drug Abuse
(Mean for students in each nation) r=.53
65

THE DRUG ABUSE & ASSAULT LINK IS STRONGER FOR ASSAULTS
BY WOMEN THAN BY MEN, EVEN FEWER WOMEN ABUSE DRUGS
Men
Women
Assault
ID92 r=.38
Drug Abuse
(Mean for students in each nation)
66 r=.52

THE LINK BETWEEN ALCOHOL ABUSE & ASSAULT IS STRONGER FOR
ASSAULTS
Women
ABUSE
Assault
ID92 r=.27
Alcohol Abuse
Alcohol Abuse
(Mean for students in each nation)
(Mean for students in each nation) r=.13
67

THE HIGHER THE ALCOHOL ABUSE SCORE OF STUDENTS
IN A NATION, THE LOWER THE AVERAGE ASSAULT SCORE FOR THAT
NATION
Assault
ID92 r=.23
Alcohol Abuse
(Mean for students in each nation)
68

THE LINK BETWEEN BORDERLINE PERSONALITY & ASSAULT IS
STRONGER FOR ASSAULT BY WOMEN THAN BY MEN
Men Women
Assault
ID92 r=.34
Borderline Personality Symptoms
(Mean for students in each nation) r=.66
69

THE LINK BETWEEN POST TRAUMATIC STRESS & ASSAULT IS STRONGER
FOR ASSAULTS BY WOMEN THAN BY MEN
Men Women
Assault
ID92 r=.22
Post Traumatic Stress Symptoms
(Mean for students in each nation)
70 r=.59

THE COMBINATION OF ALL SEVEN MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS HAS
THE STRONGEST RELATION TO ASSAULTING A DATING PARTNER
161% increase
Assault
Scale
Risk Factor Index F=38.1, p<.001
Mental Health Risk Factor Index
(Quintiles)
71

THE COMBINATION OF ALL SEVEN MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS IS
STRONGLY RELATED TO ASSAULTING A DATING PARTNER BY BOTH MEN
& WOMEN
Risk Factor Index F=38.1, p<.001
Gender F=137.9, p<.001
Risk Factor Index*Gender F=2.9, p=.008
Assault
Scale
Female
Male
Mental Health Risk Factor Index
(Quintiles) 72

COMBINATION OF ALL SEVEN MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS IS
STRONGLY RELATED TO ASSAULTING A PARTNER AT ALL FOUR LEVELS
OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Assault
Scale
Low GDP
High GDP
Risk Factor Index F=38.1, p<.001
GDP F=10.2, p<.001
Risk Factor Index*GDP F=2.5, p<.001
Mental Health Risk Factor Index
(Quintiles)
73

The Average Score For Male Students Is Higher Than The Score Of Female Students
For All Mental Health Problems Except PTS Symptoms (all differences significant)
Male
Femal
Antisocial
Personality
30.5
23.1
Borderline
Personality
34.1
32.9
Depress
-ive
Symptoms
30.3
29.7
PTS
Symptoms
39.9
41.6
Criminal
History
22.6
12.2
Alcohol
Abuse
36.5
27.4
Drug
Abuse
10.7
6.2
74

CAUSES PARTNER VIOLENCE
 Mental health problems extremely important
 But not the most prevalent cause
A. High level of conflict in families
B. Dominance of one partner,
Especially male dominance
C. Cultural norms tolerating partner
Violence
D. Parental training in violence
E. Violence in the society
D. Mental health problems
E. Multiple causes, all interwoven
Social causes most prevalent
The focus today -
ID92 75