Faculty of Psychology
University of Warsaw
Introduction to Organization and
Work Psychology I
Adam Tarnowski
2
•
Reading:
 Bourne, Yaroush (2003) Stress and cognition.
• http://psych.colorado.edu/~lbourne/StressCognition.pdf
•Work psychology
• Exam:
• Multiple-choice test
Contact Information
3
Office hours: room 206
Tuesdays and Wensdays 12:00 to 14:00
(it is recommended to appoint via email)
•Work psychology
Phone (22) 5549 777
Mail adam.tarnowski@psych.uw.edu.pl
Website: www.psychologia.pl/adamtarnowski
Topics
4
Introduction- definitions, methods and topics in work psychology.
Legal aspects of work psychology.
Human possibilities and limitations- cognitive models of information
acquiring and processing.
•Work psychology
Workplace environment- physical and social stressors
Human error. Accident analyses. Fatigue and shift work.
Personnel selection – requirements analyze, skills and
competencies testing.
Cognitive ergonomics- designing for humans.
Teamwork
Test.
Work psychology and law
5
There are some situations in polish law system, when
psychological evaluation is mandatory:
- Traffic Psychology
•Work psychology
- Industrial Psychology
- Military/explosives production
There are rules regulating standards of psychologists
requirements and licencing, test methods and
documentation standards
Traffic Psychology
6
Traffic psychology investigates human behaviour in
road, air, rail and sea transport.
- Asessing fitnes to drive
•Work psychology
- Vehicle ergonomics
- Accident investigation
- social behaviour of road users
Psychological evaluation in Traffic
Psychology
7
Evaluation is obligatory for professional drivers, accident
perpetrators (in future also victims), drivers prosecuted
for drunk driving and frequent traffic rules breakers.
•Work psychology
Psychologists have to complete MA in psychology and
also postgraduate studies.
Methods are not specified, but intelect, personality and
psychomotor performance shall be asessed.
Documentation is well defined by Ministry of health.
Industrial psychology
8
Industrial psychology is subdiscipline investigating
human- machine relation.
IP includes
•Work psychology
- topics concerning selection and placement (adjusting
people to workplace)
- ergonomics (adjusting workplace to human possibilities
and limitations)
Industrial Psychology
9
Evaluation is mandatory for workers employed in
positions demanding high psychomotor performance,
especially:
- Working on heights
•Work psychology
- Working with forklift
Psychological asessment is a part of ocupational medicine
doctor evaluation.
There are no specific standarts for psychologists, but
documentation is well defined. The Voivodian Centres of
Occupational Medicine provides supervision over
psychological laboratories.
Military and explosives production
10
The intelect, pesronality and social adjustment shall be
take into consideration- but methods are not defined.
Psychologists are certified by Police- obligatory is to:
- have a MA degree in psychology,
•Work psychology
- complete special course and pass the exam
- have at least 5 years professional practice
Psychologists with this certificate are allowed to evaluate
also judges and prosecutors, and people attempting to
have personal gun
Safety guards
11
•Work psychology
Licenced safeety guards have by default permission for
use shotguns in their work. Thus, the psychological
evaluation has to be very cerefull- it is a question of
„professional gun licence”.
Appealation
12
•Work psychology
Every subject, who feels not satisfied with psychological
statement can appeal and has the right to supervisory
evaluation. The final result of appealation is definitive.
Not only investigated subjects have this right, but also
institution which directed him to psychologist. Very
frequent is, for example, appealig by Police, when they
realize that socially poor adapted person has been no
contraindications in psychological statement.
Non-mandatory psychological aessment
13
• Many organisations are interested in selection the best
workers, especially into a position requiring skills and
responsibility, not only pilots or air traffic controllers,
but also office and industry workers, when their tasks
are requiring eg.
•Work psychology
• continuous attention
• Analytical skills
• Stress resiliency
•
conscentiousness
Emploee developement
•Work psychology
14
Predispositions and competency
•Work psychology
15
High competency
Low competency
High
predispositions
(Inteligence,
personality,
theoretical
knowledge)
A perfect candidate, „plug-andplay”. His individual skills are giving
him a flexibility and creativity,
practical experience allows to work
accuratelly almost since first day.
He have habits from previous job,
some of them shall be changed in
a new position.
Has a good potential,
probably after few months
he would be innovative
and competent.
Probable will overestimate
theory. Tuitition shall be
focused on learning
practical issues- as an
examplification of theory.
Low
predispositions
Has a well grounded practical
knowledge.
He needs to reconsider which
routines from previous work are
adequate in new one. The tuitition
shall be focused on adjusting
know-how to new situation.
May have good motivation
and openess.
Needs extensive training,
from simple to more
complex actions.
16
•Work psychology
Human possibilities and limitations
Overview
17
- Automation and control
- Situational awareness
- Perception
•Work psychology
- Working memory
- Multitasking abilities
Supervisory Attention System (Normann &
Shallice model)
18
Perception
↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓
SAS activates when
situation:
- demands decison making
•Work psychology
- demands new, unlearned
reaction
Supervisory
Attentional
System
→
Learned
behaviour
schemas
↓↓↓↓
Contention
scheduling
↓
Action
- demands new skills
- demands error
correction
- becomes dangerous and
stresfull
A videoclip
19
•Work psychology
Is pilot's behaviour
automated or
controlled?
Situational awareness
20
Situational awareness is a dynamic model of subject's
environment
Elements of situation awareness are:
- Perception
•Work psychology
- Understanding
-
Anticipation
Information processing and the
situational awareness
21
•Work psychology
Action Effect
in
environment
Environment
Situational
awareness
Automation
Decision
making
Action
Situational awareness
22
Situational awareness includes data on
- Physical environment
- Task status
•Work psychology
- Staff (tasks, workload, functions and resources)
- Equipement
Situational awareness is a good theory to analyze of work
- Aircrew
- Drivers
- Medical teams
- Any other task groups
Situational awareness of the team
23
Theory covers not only problems of individual orientation.
It shall be also analysed on a level of the team:
- Specialised knowledge
•Work psychology
- Information from particular perspectives
- Personal resources and functions
Team situational awareness is not a simple summary of
members knowledge. It depends on
- Management and leadership
- Communication
Visual illusions
•Work psychology
24
Illusion
Mechanism
Muller-Lyer
Learned schemas
Ponzo
Contextual
Herman’s
Physiological (selective
supression in visual
cortex)
Example
‹
Visual illusions in aviation
•Work psychology
25
Somatogravitational illusions
•Work psychology
26
Identifying objects
27
the particular objects are
binding into „streams”
•Work psychology
- when performing
common action
- when perceiving as
having a common
intention.
Information processing: working memory
28
Slave susytems are responsible for storing and
processing data
Cental Executive manages the system and supports
memory operations.
•Work psychology
Central Executive
Visuospatial
sketch pad
Visual LTM
Episodic
buffer
Phonological
loop
Episodic
LTM
Verbal LTM
Prospective memory
29
„remembering to remember”:
•Work psychology
Working memory structure responsible for task planning
and keeping information nescessary to completeit.
There is no essential difference between Prospective
Memory and conscientiousness. So, the difference
between „personality” and „cognitive architecture” is
only conventional.
Decision making
30
- Identifying decision options
- Information seeking
- Gathering and processing of the information
•Work psychology
- Usefullness (values) of the options
- Success probability estimation
- Making and implementing the decision
- Evaluating the decision
Risk management
•Work psychology
31
Risk management rules
32
1. Do not accept unnescessary risk
2. You can accept risk when benefits outweigh the costs.
•Work psychology
3. Making of risky decisions should take place at an
appropriate level.
4. Anticipate and manage risk by planning.
Decision making- summary
•Work psychology
33
34
•Work psychology
Workplace environment: physical and
social stressors
Overview
35
What the stress really is?
stress reaction
Stress and performance
•Work psychology
Physical stresors: Temperature, noise, vibrations
Social stressors
Stress coping
Stress outcomes- burnout syndrome, Work Related
Stress Disorder, PTSD
Stress reaction and chronic stress
36
When something unexpected happens, the organism mobilizes to
fight or flee. We can feel it as the unpleasant reaction, but
sometimes also as positive mobilisation. We call it actual stress.
•Work psychology
When this state prolonges for a long time, the mobilisation response
becomes our habit. It may lead to psychological or
psychosomatical disorder. We can call it the chronic stress
syndrome.
The most common chronic stress symptoms are feeling of strain and
pressure, feeling of anxiety and being overwhelmed, overall
irritability, feeling of insecure, nervousness, social withdrawal,
loss of appetite, depression, panic attacks, exhaustion, high or
low blood pressure, skin problems, insomnia, lack of sexual
desire, migraine, gastral problems.
Psychological symptoms- working mamory and attention
disturbances.
Actual Stress
37
In first phase the body is being mobilised for action. The
release of hormonal and biochemical resources allows
for better functioning (physical and cognitive).
•Work psychology
Second phase is a period of acting with increased
performance. Some cognitive problems may appear
anyway:
- Cognitive tunneling (impaired peripheral perception)
- Bolstering (Tendency to stick to one decision, neglect of
information incompatibile with current plan)
-
Concrete thinking (utility of theoretical knowledge is limited)
Third phase- exhausting. Performance below the
baseline
Transactional stress theory (Lazarus &
Folkman)
38
The source of stress is the interaction, not the objective characteristics of
the individual and the task
•
Primary evaluation: Subject identifies situation as
•Work psychology
•
•
•
insignificant
•
favorable
•
threatening
•
loss
•
Danger
•
challenge
Secondary Evaluation: Possibility of the coping.
Stress and performance
•Work psychology
39
Stress and performance (Hardy's model)
40
•Work psychology
When cognitive anxiety
(connected with social
pressure) is high, the
performance
catastrophically breaks
down.
Physical stressors: heat
41
High temperatures will reduce the level of implementation of the
tasks that require vigilance and perseverance.
•Work psychology
The negative effects of heat stress impairs more relatively easy and
monotonous than difficult task. Probably difficult task stimulates
more intensivelly what allows to overcome the discomfort and
maintain high efficiency.
One can be adapted to operate at high temperature, but after some
time, depending on the individual characteristics, cognitive and
motor performance is weakened .
Temperature of 32 degrees Celsius is a limit beyond which human
performance is considerably reduced (Johnson, Kobrick 2001).
Emotional aspects
42
•Work psychology
Another effect of thermal stress on human activity is
increasing irritability and aggression in response to it.
There has been a significantly greater number of violent
crimes in high temperatures. Climatic factors explain
the higher percentage of aggressive and criminal
behavior than economic.
Dysphoria, even if it is not expressed in anti-social
behavior has an impact on the focus of attention and
the deterioration of psychomotor skills.
Low temperature
43
Rapid exposure to low temperature improves human
cognitive functioning.
•Work psychology
However, if the deep temperature of the body is low,
(about 2-4 degrees) mental capacity decreases.
The decline in performance is small for simple tasks, the
influence of cold on complex tasks is stronger.
The subjective feeling of performance deterioration is
much higher than the results of objective tests.
Noise
44
Kjellberg, Landstroem, Tesarz (1996): study of workers
exposed to various noise (offices and factories)
•Work psychology
Irritability (emotional factor) is proportional to the noise level,
noise subjectively perceived need, gender, and sensory
sensitivity. Irritating noise source is a machine used by others.
Deconcentration (cognitive/executive factor) is proportional to
the sense of control over noise and its predictability. The most
distracting are sound of loud talking and the phone.
Hygge and Knez (2001) studied the effect of the loud
ventilation
Tasks requiring attention under the influence of noise were
made faster, but with more errors
Social stressors: Leadership
45
•Work psychology
Authoritaive leadership may be source of stress (feeling
of overhelming of tasks, total control, lack of selfactualisation possibility)
Free- reign style (lack of leadership) is also stressfull
(overhelming of responsibility, chaos and lack of
support)
The leadership style shall be supportive and adequate to
the task and emploee skills/knowledge.
Social stressorsrs: the task
46
•Work psychology
Overhelming of the task- too much work, lack of
support, lack of coordination, pressure for the effect.
Task deprivation can be sometimes even more
stressfull. Situation, when emploee had to be at
worplace but no tasks are assigned to him can be form
of bullying.
Other social stressors
47
sexism
discrimination
•Work psychology
improper motivation
threat of losing a job
Stress coping styles
48
- Task oriented
- Emotions oriented
- Avoidance
•Work psychology
Substitute activity
Social orientation
Stress is not always wrong: Stress management
Outcomes of chronic stress
49
Burnout syndrome
Exhaution- emotional problems, poor mood and anhedonia
Cinicism- social functioning impairment.
•Work psychology
Lack of efficacy and job satisfaction
Work related stress disorder (similar to PTSD)
Psychosomatic disorders
Profesions exposed to PTSD risk
50
Rescue services (firemen, industry/mine emergency
team members),
Medical service
•Work psychology
Police and safety guards
Military
Drivers (road accident victims)
The traumatic experience
51
• Accident – the subject or someone else had been
seriously hurt.
• Experience physical violence in any form.
•Work psychology
• Lack of personal safety.
• Similarity to the victim
• Accident causes: Victim is guilty himself < incidental causes <
caused by intentional violence.
• Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder- therapists
working with trauma victims.
PTSD dynamic
52
- First symptoms- few weeks after trauma
•Work psychology
- Most of subjects can copy with PTSD using natural
reinforcements (family support, supportive atmosphere
in workplace)
- In about 30% victims, without professional help PTSD
may lead to maladjustment and personality disorders
Reaction for acute stress- PTSD
53
• Re-experiencing the traumatic event
• Intrusive, upsetting memories of the event, Flashbacks,
Nightmares, Intense physical reactions to reminders of the
event
•Work psychology
• Avoidance and numbing
• Avoiding activities, places, thoughts, or feelings that remind
you of the trauma, Inability to remember important aspects of
the trauma, Loss of interest in activities and life, Feeling
detached from others and emotionally numb, „limited future”
• Increased anxiety and emotional arousal
• Difficulty falling or staying asleep, Irritability or outbursts of
anger, Difficulty concentrating, Hypervigilance.
Stress Inoculation Training
54
• SIT is a tailored training improving stress coping
ability.
• Three Phases:
•Work psychology
• Cognitive restructuring- look at trauma like at a problem to be
solved
• Improving the individual resources- relaxation, problem
solving techniques, interpersonal skills, professional
competency etc
• Implementing- traaining in practical situations.
• Imagination- Role playing – supporting victims- involving
in situation.
55
•Work psychology
Human error: accident analysis, fatigue, shift work
Overview
56
- Error management: Person approach vs. System
approach.
- Swiss cheese model
•Work psychology
- Bus accident analyse
- Fatigue and sleepiness
- Shift work and performance
Error managment: Person oriented approach
57
•Work psychology
- Error is explained as the consequence of individual
failures: inattention, violation of the rules,
inexperience, poor motivation etc.
- Error is perceived as a personal guilt of one or few
individuals. But blaming individuals is only emotionally
more satysfying than targeting institutions.
- Psychologists should focus on selection people to
dangerous jobs, training, evaluate predispositions and
competencies.
Error management: System oriented
approach
58
-concentrated on conditions of work
-building devences to avert errors and minimize their
effects.
•Work psychology
- Errors are explained as multi-level interaction of many
factors.
- Critical accidents investigation should be concluded
with recommendations of system changes.
- Psychologists should analyze and improve the
information flow in organization, improve the social
and ergonomic conditions of the work.
James Reason: GEMS (Generic Error
Management System)
59
• Skill- Rule- Knowledge Framework (Rasmussen)
• Human activity can be analysed at three levels:
•Work psychology
• Knowledge-based: New situations, behavior guided by
Interpreted knowledge, reasoning, planning, etc.
• Rule-based: Familiar situations, governed by rule-plus
exception quick procedures (routines)
•
Skill-based: Stored patterns of preprogrammed perceptualmotor sequences, automaticity
GEMS- sources of error
60
•
•Work psychology
•
•
Skill-based performance
•
Inattention or wrong attention distribution
•
Motor noise
Rule-based performance
•
Informational overload, change in environmental conditions.
•
Wrong priorities
Knowledge-based performance
•
Workspace limitations
•
Memory error- Retrieval failure, weak cues, mis-retrieval
Errors: Combinations and cascades
61
•Work psychology
Combination: Multiple mechanisms are working togetherthe action pathways are tangling in working memory.
Cascade: Small deviations in early stage of action
produces large perturbetion later (correcting the error
activates SAS- smooth automatism is collapsing, tast
demands more time)
Accidents- swiss cheese model
62
- Pilot misses descend path pointer
- Poor crew coordination and
situaational awareness lost
•Work psychology
- Inadequate training and crew
designation
- Inadequate HR policy
- Economic crisis, few experienced
pilots.
When „accident path” meets absent
defences on all levels, the
accident is only question of time
Individual and system responsibility
63
Perpetrator causes only
single accident
•Work psychology
Lack of instiitutional
changes may cause
many more.
Example
64
•Work psychology
The driver of a tourist bus was tired after a day of driving, and realizing that
he had to get up around 5 went to bed at 21 Unfortunately, the
neighbors' got under the party ". About 22 asked them to turn it down
music, at midnight he called the police who came at 1 am, wrote down
his statement and then silenced neighbors- but in short time they started
loud music again.
The driver reported to the dispatcher his inability to work, but there was no
substitute for him, so the dispatcher asked him to drive. The route was
supposed to be short, so only one driver has been assigned to this
service.
At about 8 at the intersection of equal priority he omitted a car coming from
the right. As he explained – in thi moment he observed the pedestrians
on the opposite side of the crossing (students going to school). In the
case of accident two passengers suffered injuries in his coach (including
a child who was outside the seat). The driver of the other vehicle, riding
without a seat belt, has been also injured.
Fatigue and drowsinnes
65
Classification (Dinges):
Lack of sleep (stand 16 to 30 hours);
•Work psychology
Acute lack of sleep (standby more than 30 hours);
Chronic lack of sleep (5 hours per day for more than 5
nights);
Shift circadian rhythms (work night shifts, jet lag).
Drowsiness and attention
66
reduction in arousal
Difficulties in allocating attention
Impaired selective attention
•Work psychology
Cognitive tunneling (Easterbrook)
Difficulty in concentrating
Disappearance of information in memory
Deterioration of communication
Loss of situational awareness
Acute lack of sleep
•Work psychology
67
Chronic lack of sleep
•Work psychology
68
Fatigue and accident risk
69
Projekt współfinansowany ze środków
Unii Europejskiej Europejskiego Funduszu Społecznego
Programu Operacyjnego Kapitał Ludzki
CZŁOWIEK – NAJLEPSZA INWESTYCJA
Mental state evaluation
70
Projekt współfinansowany ze środków
Unii Europejskiej Europejskiego Funduszu Społecznego
Programu Operacyjnego Kapitał Ludzki
CZŁOWIEK – NAJLEPSZA INWESTYCJA
•Work psychology
71
72
•Work psychology
Personnel recruitment and selection issues
Overview
73
- Abilities and competencies
- Select-in and select-out
- Personality and inteligence
•Work psychology
- Questionnaires and performance tests
- Asessment centre
- In-basket
- Situational Judgement tests
Predispositions
•Work psychology
Professional
training
knowledge skills attitudes
Competencies
Career
Success
74
75
Predispositions are psychological traits, universal
characteritics related to individual differences theory.
Predispositions (intelect, personality) can be measured by
psychological tests.
•Work psychology
Predispositions are well defined constructs, but predicting
professional success by psychological traits is indirect, and
unreliable.
Competencies (learning effects) are outcomes of professional
training and previous experience. Competencies are
closely related to particular job and workplace.
Competencies measurement is very specific and can not
be performed by standard test. Compeencies are harder to
evaluae, but they are closer predictors of the work
adjustment and success.
Select- in
76
Desired
employee profile:
•Work psychology
Theory
Real
World
Operacionaliston:
Eg.Matrix test
Eg. Intelligence
Job analysis:
Qualification:
Eg. Decision making
In complex situations
High score in
Raven’sMatrix test
In situation of select-in (positive selection)
77
- Evaluation must be holistic
- Psychologist can not assumpt possibility of
compensation
•Work psychology
- Criteria are arbitral
- Psychologist has no valid information concerning
previous work.
Select- out
78
•Work psychology
Hypothesis about
dysfunction:
Operacionaliston:
Theory
Eg. Attention deficit
Eg. Divided
Attention Test
Real
World
Critical situation:
Decision:
Eg. Road Accident
Compliance of the test
results and the cause
of the accident
In Select-Out situation
79
- Psychologist can use information about subject's job
adjustment before an accident.
•Work psychology
- There is a possibility of asessment of weaknesses
compensation evaluation.
- The evaluation concerns only a small section of
psychological profile, related to critical situation.
- Psychologist is obligated to take into account the
impact of his decision on client's life.
Personality and intelligence
80
Intelligence determines our ability
to adapt to environment
to transform environment
•Work psychology
To change environment into another.
The intelligence is the most desired trait of the emploee
to any clerical job, for managers, salesmen etc.
Intelligence is connected with creativity and need of
stimulation. High level of intelligence is therefore
inadvisable when the job demands monotonous work
Personality and intelligence
81
Sometimes the position requires miediocre level of
intelligence:
•Work psychology
- call center: the employee should understand the client and find
the solution. But the work is too monotnous for people with
high IQ.
- dangerous work: The emploee should be reasonable to
understand the sitiuation and prevent threats. But he should
not have to much imagination...
Personality
82
•Work psychology
When psychopathology is excluded, human nature has a
big potential to adaptation. Therefore, the personality
traits are poor predictors of success at work.
Of course, some positions requires social skills or good
organsation. Some other are connected with need of
emotional stability and stress resistance.
Some personality traits may also predict disadaptationreactive and perseverative people are more sensitive
to burnout syndrome.
Psychological tests
83
•Work psychology
All the tests, used in selection shall have good reliability
and construct validity.
Questionnaires are most common used. The
psychologist must realize, however, that they are very
sensitive to defence machanisms and need to social
approval.
Performance tests, are more reliable and homogenous.
PT may be an indicator not ony for psychomotor and
intelectual skills, but also for personality (e.g. Working
under time pressure as indicatorr of stress
performance)
Questionnaires - Methods of credibility
control
84
1. Social biased items „I have never been late at work”
2. Freqency based „My fatther was/is a good man”
(False)
•Work psychology
3. Empirical
1. Answers frequently chosed by dissimulating patients
2. Answers frequently chosed in situation of recruitment
4. Comparison between items with similar (or opposite)
content (poor reliability)
1. I am afraid of many everyday things/ I have a lot of concerns
2. I am very confident/ I am unsure of my abilites
Asessment centre
85
•Work psychology
The group of people are asked to perform a task, in
limited time. The observers are looking on the subjects
(there must be at least one observer per subject) and
scalling on previously prepared sheet their behaviour.
Asessment centre is recommended to evaluate such
skills like social adjustment, leadership skills etc.
In Basket technique
86
The subject is confronted with many tasks (in form of
email letters or just papers on the desk).
•Work psychology
The subject is scored for presenting some skills, like time
manarement, distinguishing important facts and
letters.
Situation judgement test
87
•Work psychology
The test is a fine way to asess the competencies. The
test items are the situation description (the stem), and
several possibilities of problem solving. The method
has been developed as „simplified asessment centre”
for US military selections purposes before WW II.
The key (ranking of solutions from the best to the worst)
should be set by professionals from the organisation.
Problems
–
There are different „keys” for each organisation.
–
The „score” is determined by many individual factors,
so the test as a scale is heterogenous, what strongly
impacts its reliability.
Example
88
•Work psychology
Imagine You take part in the project, which requires the coordination of
several departments - responsible for one particular area
of implementation. One of the departments, responsible for
providing the necessary materials for you is delayed. Finally got a
folder you need - unfortunately, you have very little time to analyze
its content, and materials both information you need and, in addition,
contain many unnecessary data. How do you should start to read
this document?
a. You would read a table of contents and select the chapters that
interest you. Then You will read the summary to verify selection.
b. You would send it back to authors, giving them two hours for
improvement.
c. You would read the table of contents and select the chapters that
interest you. Then You would read it and keep doing notes.
d. You would read a whole material- in this way you will not miss
anything, and then quickly perform rest of the job.
Two Recruitment Models
89
• Classical:
• application form, (incl. CV, certificates etc)
• Interview
•Work psychology
• Multi-stage:
• Application form
• On-line testing
• Psychological testing (including work test)
• Interview
90
•Work psychology
Cognitive ergonomics
Overview
91
- Definition
- Indicators
- Problems with automation
•Work psychology
- Overtrusting and mistrusting in automatic systems
- Augmented cognition
Definition
92
•Work psychology
Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental
processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning,
and motor response, as they affect interactions among
humans and other elements of a system.
The relevant topics include mental workload, decisionmaking, skilled performance, human-computer
interaction, human reliability, work stress and training
as these may relate to human-system design.
The goal of cogntive ergonomics is to achieve
optimization between people and their work.
Information display
93
Digital information displays are engaging the central vision. The
rading of information is accurate, but the cognitive load when
using such display is high. It is difficult to observe many digital
displays simultanously.
•Work psychology
The analogue displays are less accurate, but it is possible to monitor
many of them in the same time.
There are many channels possible to display the informations. In
modern aircrafts the „head-up-display” or „glass cockpit” are
applicated. The information is displayed on the window, what
allows pilot to track it together with terrain observation.
The artificial horison (instument nescessary to read the plane
positin) is displayed not as a small instrument in the centre of
visual field, but as a lines presented peripherally.
Warning signals
94
•Work psychology
Many ergonomic problems are question of compromise.
The warning signal should be salient, but one should
remember that warning would disrupt current task and
may cause situational awareness loss.
The most important signal should be presented in
position of most likely gaze fixation.
- driver generally fixates attention on a road 30-40 m ahead of
the car. Extra stop light mounted on rear window reduces by
50% rear collision probability.
Oscar! Sierra!
95
Human reaction time for a sound is shorter. Recognition
of the sound can take, however, longer time.
•Work psychology
The most important comunicates shall be recorded with
dedicated and recognizable voice.
- The missile warning system OS generates the warning with
pilot's wife/partner voice.
When something requires displaying more information
than can be easy displayed, system may generate
„Master Alert”. Particullary, in car warning signal
(STOP or SERVICE) often means that driver should
check the condition of the car.
Augmented cogition
96
System estimates the workload of cognitive channels of
the subject (visual, auditory, verbal, symbolic...) and
formulates information in proper code.
•Work psychology
The concept, born in military aviation, is applicated to
different fields, e.g. Neuromarketing.
Automation and situational awareness
97
•Work psychology
In many systems human operator may be replaced by
automated systems. In abnormal situation, however,
the operator has to take over the control.
Situational awareness demands tracking the situationonly remembering the previous state may lead to
understanding and predicting the situation in the
future. Therefore, in emergency it is difficult for
operator to understand the situation. The time
nescessary to adapt to the situation may be cause of
accident.
Automation
98
•Work psychology
Automation is widely appplied because of human
limitations. Automatic system are more reliable,
efficient and cheaper when compared with human
operator.
In some situation, however humans are more adaptable,
flexible and creative. They could better respond for
changing or unforeseen conditions.
Mistrust ond overtrust in automation
99
Overtrust in automation may be reason of accident for
example when aircraft pilot is trying to use the
autopilot in nonadequate conditions.
•Work psychology
Mistrusting- too much false alerts may be cause
indifference of the operator.
Total automation?
100
•Work psychology
The role of systems working
without any human control is
expanding.
Maybe we will commit control
over the cars and other
devices to the machines
sooner than we expect.
Three modes of coexistence with intelligent
system
101
A: „Brake a glass in emergency”
B:„System is always right”
•Work psychology
C: „Partnership”
A: Man as a supervisor
102
Man takes a charge in emergency only
To take a charge man should
Notify an alert (vigillance, ergonomy)
•Work psychology
Diagnose the problem (SA)
Implement the proper reaction (profesional competenciec)
B: Man should not discuss with machines
103
Systems are projected to lead people with insufficient
orientation
Problems:
•Work psychology
- Adequate algorithms
- Authoritary communication
- Information delivery
- Clear instructions
C: Partnership
104
Supporting of human decisions, information seeking and
processing, and action control.
•Work psychology
Man should have a basic knowledge in system
construction issues
Situation awareness (including information about
autoamic systems state and understanding its
algorithms) is nescessary.
Cognitive science in architecture
•Work psychology
105
Cognitive science in architecture
106
•Work psychology
The cognitive structure of the building is particullary
important in emergency situations.
Modern shops and malls are designated to disrupt
spatial orientation of the client- it shall provoke more
exhibition watching and shopping. In shall be however
sufficient number of emergency exits, generally
different than used in everyday exploatations.
The emergency warniings should be very clear and
directive to interrupt normal activity and vector the
crowd in proper direction. The withdrawal of danger
(and prolongation of decision) is much bigger problem
than possibility of panic.
Sime's model of „participation”
107
The building should be viewed as informational structure.
•Work psychology
The evacuation shall take into account the knowledge of
the building users (are all emergency exits known for
the personnel?)
In emergency people are participating in eveacuation
(not only being evacuated). They will seek for
information, making decisions- and act at the end.
Rules of cognitive engineering
108
Try to plan behaviors, not the environment.
Building should have clear communication and information
structure
•Work psychology
Do not concentrate on human reactions for signals- try to
predict how people would unerstand it.
Remember, that people have local, not global knowledge
about the building.
The walls are not only physical, but also information barriers.
They separates from unknown.
The place determines primary visual possibilities and
cognition, secondary actions.
Cognitive ergonomics
109
•Work psychology
Cognitive ergonomics is a science (or art?) of designing
usefull and easy to understand environment for
humans.
•Work psychology
110
Teamwork and resilience of organisations
111
Task group psychology
Crew resource
management
•Work psychology
Communication in a team
Other CRM components
Risky attitudes - inhibiting
efficiency
Resilience of the
organisation
Task group psychology
112
The task group is a small team where:
- All members comunicate each other
•Work psychology
- The group has been establisched for achieving
paticular, well defined goal
- The team is working under time pressure and
sometimes in stress
- The team membership is relatively constant (or there
are well defined roles)
Crew resource management
113
CRM is a way of optimization the efficiency of task
forces. It may be useful for:
- Aircrews
•Work psychology
- Military units
- Medical ambulance teams
- Fire brigades
- surgery teams
Etc.
Areas of CRM training
•Work psychology
114
Technical skills:
Non- technical skills
- connected with
professional
competency
- Leadership
- dividing the sub- tasks in
a team
- Conflict management
- technical language
- responsibility for
information acquiring,
decision making and
acting
- Communication skills
- Assertiveness
Exercise: Rope shapes
115
•Work psychology
Your task is to form a circle with the rope. You have to do
it with Your eyes shielded.
Excercise- discussion
116
Divide into two groups and discuss the experience:
- What facilitated the task?
•Work psychology
- What distracted You?
- How behaviours did You observe? (Leadership
behaviours, conflicts, decision making, passiveness)
Excercise- discussion II
117
Discuss 10 minutes in groups and then present in points:
- what is needed for a good communication?
•Work psychology
- what is needed for a good coordination?
Communication in a team
118
•Work psychology
The team is a social system that has its own structure,
and works in certain standards and is subject to
various processes. There is also a network of
interconnected relationships. Teamwork is a field of
conflict, sympathy and influence.
The team has a common goal and in addition, its
members have also their individual targets. To meet
all these goals, communication is nescessary.
Communication
119
•Work psychology
Team communication takes place essentially within two
spheres:
Task oriented - when people communicate to realize the
common objective (exchange informations, express
suggestions, express opinions, ask for opinions, ask
for suggestions)
interpersonal - when people communicate by building
relationships (show solidarity and support, sympathy,
antagonism, tension) and release the tension - Jokes,
laughter.
Golden rules of communication
120
"Communicate the information needed, when they are
needed, for those who need it and in proper moment"
•Work psychology
„Talk what you think about- Think about what you talk”
1) With what goal the information is connected
2) what is the essence
3) from which point of view
Other CRM components
121
Situation awareness-Perception, understanding and anticipation
Task management - prioritizing tasks in the context of individuals cognitive load
Decision-making – Situation evaluation and action with respect to level of risk
associated with the job
•Work psychology
Analysis of the task - both analysis and planning processes carried out during the
briefing and task itself.
Communication - within the group and with the external environment
Coordination of the team - this component includes processes related to leadership.
Attitudes- risky and ineffecive
Risky attitudes - inhibiting efficiency
122
Macho - "I can always do this!"
Anti-authority - "Do not tell me how to do it!"
Impulsive - "Make it quick!"
•Work psychology
Resigned - "Why shoul we do that?"
With a sense of mission – "Let's go forward at all costs!"
Resilience of the organisation
123
Resilience is an ability to restore functions and resources
after a crisis
Resilience is a function of
•Work psychology
- situational awareness,
- identifying and managing of the organisation vulnerabilities
- Ability to adaptation in a complex and dynamic environment
- Ability to prevent the negative consequences of the event
- Ability to engage in the post-crisis resource reconstruction
Reslience os not constant- depends on situation and character of the
crisis.
Example of resilience
124
Anticipation and flexibility should be the subject of efforts of
the whole team. In case of emergency personnel will
respond in a previously provided and trained way.
•Work psychology
Morgan-Stanley after the attack on the WTC in 1993,
realized that the seat may be exposed to danger due to
"symbolically important" location.
They developed 3 centers prepared to takeover of
headquarters functions, strengthened connectivity and IT
infrastructure and trained personnel.
11 September 2001 within 2 minutes evacuation of 2700
people from 22 floors started. Only 6 people were killed.
Visual perception
125
Visual field is divided into three zones:
•Work psychology
- Central vision (acute perception) responsible for
content analysis and object recognition. While driving
CV is performing maneuver planning.
- Parafoveal vision (suplementary) extends analyses and
allows for recognition of known objects.
- Peripheral vison is responsible for spatial orientation,
aatention cepture to new objects. While driving, PV
responses for movement monitoring.