Chapter 6 Research Design : An Overview Donald R. Cooper & Pamela S. Schindler 授課教授: 洪新原 教授 組員:602530037 翁育群 602556023 李明易 601520038 游珉宜 2013/10/28 1 What Is Research Design? • Blueprint • Plan • Guide • Framework 2013/10/28 2 What Is Research Design? Design in the Research Process 2013/10/28 3 What Tools Are Used in Designing Research? CPM Schedule of Research Design 2013/10/28 4 Classification of Designs Category Options The degree to which the research question has been crystallized • • Exploratory study Formal study The method of data collection • • Monitoring Communication study The power of the researcher to produce effects in the variables under study • • Experimental Ex post facto The purpose of the study • • • Reporting Descriptive Casual - Explanatory. Predictive The time dimension • • Cross-sectional Longitudinal The topical scope – breadth and depth – of the study • Case • Statistical study The research environment • Field setting • Laboratory research • Simulation The participants’ perceptions of research activity • Actual routine • Modified routine 2013/10/28 5 Degree of Research Question Crystallization • Exploratory study • Formal study 2013/10/28 6 Method of Data Collection • Monitoring • Communication study 2013/10/28 7 Researcher Control of Variables • Experiment • Ex post facto design 2013/10/28 8 The purpose of the Study • Reporting study • Descriptive study • Causal-explanatory study • Causal-predictive study 2013/10/28 9 The Time Dimension • Cross-sectional studies • Longitudinal studies 2013/10/28 10 The Topical Scope • Statistical studies • Case studies 2013/10/28 11 The Research Environment • Field conditions • Laboratory conditions • Simulations 2013/10/28 12 Participants’ Perceptual Awareness • 1.Participants perceive no deviations from everyday routines • 2.Participants perceive deviations, but as unrelated to the researcher • 3.Participants perceive deviations as researcher-induced 2013/10/28 13 Exploratory Studies Established range and scope of possible management decisions Established major dimensions of research task Defined a set of subsidiary questions that can guide research design 2013/10/28 14 Exploratory Studies Develop hypotheses about possible causes of management dilemma Learn which hypotheses can be safely ignored Conclude additional research is not needed or not feasible 2013/10/28 15 Quality Technique The Amount The How Much 2013/10/28 The essential character or nature of something The what 16 Quality Technique 2013/10/28 17 Commonly Used Exploratory Techniques 2013/10/28 Secondary data analysis Experience surveys Focus groups Two-stage designs 18 Experience Survey • What is being done? • What has been tried in the past with or without success? • How have things changed? • Who is involved in the decisions? • What problem areas can be seen? • Whom can we count on to assist or participate in the research? 2013/10/28 19 Focus Groups •Group discussion •6-10 participants •Moderator-led •90 minutes-2 hours 2013/10/28 20 Descriptive Studies Who? How much? When? 2013/10/28 What? Where? 21 Descriptive Studies • In contrast to exploratory studies, more formalized studies are typically structured with clearly stated hypotheses or investigative questions. Formal studies serve a variety of research objectives: 1. Descriptions of population characteristics 2. Estimates of frequency of characteristics 3. Discovery of associations among variables 2013/10/28 22 Descriptive Studies(cont.) • The simplest descriptive study concerns a univariate question or hypothesis in which we ask about, or state something about, the size, form, distribution, or existence of a variable. • In the account analysis at BankChoice we might be interested in developing a profile of savers. The question: What percentage of the savers live within a two-mile radius of the office? Using the hypothesis format 2013/10/28 →60 percentage or more of the savers live within a two-mile radius of the office. 23 Descriptive Studies(cont.) • Cross-tabulations between the distance from the account owner’s residence or employment to the branch and account activity may suggest that different rates of activity are related to account owner location. • The correlation between nearness to the office and the probability of having an account at the office suggested the question Why would people who live far from the office have an account there? 2013/10/28 24 Descriptive Studies(cont.) • It might be hypothesized that: 1. 2. 3. 4. Distant savers have accounts at the office because they once lived near the office; they were “near” when the account decision was made. Distant savers actually live near the office, but the address on the account is outside the 2-mile radius; they are “near,” but the records do not show this. Distant savers work near the office; they are “near” by virtue of their work location. Distant savers are not normally near the office but responded to a promotion that encouraged savers to bank via computer; this is another form of “nearness” in which this concept is transformed into one of “convenience.” 2013/10/28 25 Causal Studies • Causation is that A “produces” B or A “forces” B to occur. • Meeting the ideal standard of causation: requires that one variable always causes another and no other variable has the same causal effect. • John Stuart Mill: Mills Method of Agreement “ When two or more cases of a given phenomenon have one and only one condition in common, then that condition may be regarded as the cause (or effect) of the phenomenon.” 2013/10/28 26 Mills Method of Agreement Exhibit 6-4 Mills Method of Agreement The method of agreement helps rule out some variables as irrelevant. 2013/10/28 27 Causal Studies(cont.) • The negative canon of agreement states that where the absence of C is associated with the absence of Z, there is evidence of a causal relationship between C and Z. negative canon of agreement 2013/10/28 Method of Agreement Method of Difference 28 Mills Method of Difference Exhibit 6-4 Mills Method of Difference 2013/10/28 29 Evidence of Causality • In testing causal hypotheses, we seek three types of evidence: 1. Covariation between A and B 2. Time order of events moving in the hypothesized direction 3. No other possible causes of B 2013/10/28 30 Causation and Experimental Design • In addition to these conditions successful inferencemaking from experimental design must meet two other requirements. Control 2013/10/28 Random Assignment 31 Causation and Experimental Design(cont.) If we consider the possible relationships that can occur between two variables, we can conclude there are three possibilities: • Symmetrical one in which two variables fluctuate together, but we assume the changes in neither variable are due to changes in the other. • Reciprocal when two variables mutually influence or reinforce each other • Asymmetrical we postulate that changes in one variable(IV) are responsible for changes in another variable(DV) 2013/10/28 32 Asymmetrical Relationships Stimulus-Response Property-Behavior Asymmetrical Relationships Property-Disposition Disposition-Behavior 2013/10/28 33 Types of Asymmetrical Causal Relationships Exhibit 6-6 Four Types of Asymmetrical Causal Relationships Relationship Type Stimulus-response Nature of Relationship An event or change results in a response from some object. Examples • • A change in work rules leads to a higher level of worker output. A change in government economic policy restricts corporate financial decisions. A price increase results in fewer unit sales. • Property-disposition An existing property causes a disposition. • • • Age and attitudes about saving. Gender attitudes toward social issues. Social class and opinions about taxation. Disposition-behavior A disposition causes a specific behavior. • • • Opinions about a brand and its purchase. Job satisfaction and work output. Moral values and tax cheating. An existing property causes a specific behavior. • Stage of the family life cycle and purchases of furniture. Social class and family savings patterns. 34 Age and sports participation. Property-behavior 2013/10/28 • • 2013/10/28 35