Introduction to Political
Research
What is Social Research?
It Is NOT…
 Authority
 Overestimate expertise
 May not all agree
 Not knowledgeable
 Tradition
 Common Sense
 Media Myth
 Personal Experience
 Overgeneralize
 Selective observation
 Premature closure
 Halo effect
 NO MAGAZINES!
Social Research IS…
 Theory
 Principles
 Outlooks
 Ideas (METHODOLOGY)
 Along with a collection of specific
practices, techniques and strategies
 Empirical
 Based on observation or experience
 Falsifiable
The Old Reliable Scientific
Method…
 Scientific Method is utilized not only in hard
science research, but in social research, too.
 Academic Journals vs. Magazine Articles
 Difference?
Academic Journals vs.
Magazines
 Academic Journal
 Magazines
 Difficult to get
published
 NOT peer reviewed
 Peer Reviewed
 Very Little Money
 Publishing
enhances
professional
status/career
prospects
 Money attached
for reporters to
publish
 Even credible
magazines such as
Time, Newsweek,
and U.S. News and
World Report fall
into this category
The Research Process
Select Topic
Focus Your Research
Design Your Study
Collect Data
Analyze Data
Interpret Data
Inform Community
Types of Research
 Applied Research
 Basic Research
 Refute or support
theories
 These theories
explain the social
world and are
already
established
 Address a specific
concern or
problem
 Evaluations
 Action Research
 Social Impact
Assessment
 Examples???
What is the Purpose of
Research
EXPLORE
DESCRIBE
EXPLAIN
Exploratory Research
What lies did Bill
Clinton tell about
the Lewinsky
Scandal?
What led up to the
uncovering of the
Lewinsky affair in
1998?
Descriptive Research
What type of
relationship
ultimately led to
the impeachment
of Bill Clinton?
What were the
circumstances
surrounding the
trial?
Explanatory Research
 What were the
ramifications of the
Clinton impeachment?
 Did the impeachment
set a precedent?
 In retrospect, should
Clinton have been
impeached?
Time Dimension in
Research
 Cross-Sectional Research
-one fixed point in time
 Longitudinal Research
-a moving picture, more at one time (time
series)
-panel study, cohort study, case study
Which is better?
Data Collection
 Quantitative Data Collection
-experiments, surveys, content
analyses, existing statistics
 Qualitative Data Collection
-field research, historicalcomparative research
Which is better?
The Scientific Method
The scientific method:
Findings are based on objective, systematic
observation and verified through public
inspection of methods and results.
The ultimate goal is to use verifiable
results to construct causal theories that
explain why phenomena behave the way
they do.
The Scientific Method
1. Empirical verification
What are the
most
important
components
of the
scientific
method?
2. Falsifiability
3. Non-normative research
4. Transmissible
5. Empirical generalization
6. Explanatory
7. Prediction
8. Probabilistic explanation
9. Parsimony
The Scientific Method
 The method uses a common structure:
Research question
A question that asks why or how a political
phenomena behaves
Theory
A body of statements that synthesize knowledge of
and explain phenomena
Hypotheses
The terms to be tested through the collection and
analysis of empirical data
Empirical analysis
Confirms or refutes hypotheses and theory and
answers research questions
The Scientific Method
Many different approaches to scientific
work
Two groups of techniques:
Deductive
Arguments are proven to be true through the use of
several logical statements in which a conclusion is
true because the underlying premises are true.
Inductive
One draws an inference from a set of propositions
and observations.
Is Political Science a Science?
There are two general objections
to classifying political science as
a science:
Practical objections
Philosophical objections
Is Political Science a Science?
Practical objections:
Political behavior is extremely complex.
People can intentionally mislead
researchers.
Measurement is often subjective.
Data can be difficult or impossible to
attain.
Is Political Science a Science?
Philosophical objections:
The reasoning behind political behavior
cannot be measured objectively.
The “facts” of political phenomena are
constructed or conditioned by the
observer’s perceptions, experiences,
and opinions.
Political Science Discipline
The discipline has changed over time.
Traditional approach:
Period between 1930 and 1960—primarily described
the practice of government
Empirical approach:
Followed early survey work in the 1950s—led to the
widespread application of statistical methods—
explanatory research
Political Science Discipline
The discipline has changed over time.
Normative pushback:
In response to empiricism—focused on questions of
morality and policy issues that are relevant to realworld political discussions
Debate between empirical and normative
research has cooled since the 1980s
Social Theory
 Social Theory is carefully constructed and
debated and organizes knowledge into a
compact, manageable framework.
 Seeks more than to pass blame, but
rather, to explain.
 Explains recurring patterns
 Explains for aggregates
 State a probability, chance, or tendency
for events to occur
Theory
Theory is broken
down into concepts
An idea expressed
as a symbol or in
words
Examples…
Gender roles
Sexism
Urban Sprawl
Concept Clusters
In research, concept clusters help to
group together like topics.
Example:
In developing a study to determine
why certain people obtain higher
education, concepts like “race,”
“income,” “social environment,” etc.
are utilized.
Concepts: Concrete vs.
Abstract
Concrete Concepts can be felt and are
often times tangible. (casting a ballot)
Abstract Concepts are not tangible and
often more complex. (size)
Theory
 1. Direction of Reasoning
 2. Social Reality
 3. Forms of Explanation
 4. Overall Framework (Assumptions)
Theoretical Approaches
 Deductive
Approach
 General to a
specific case
 Theory to
Empirical Findings
 Problems?
 Inductive
Approach
 Empirical Patterns
to a Theory
 Could be referred
to as grounded
theory
 Problems?
Grounded Theory
Building a theory from “the ground up”
Inductive Approach--More Qualitative in
Nature
Tries to make sense of evidence
Ranges of Theory
 Empirical Generalization
-summarizes a pattern of behavior
-least abstract, very narrow range
-”More men then women pick engineering
as a college major”
 Middle-Range Theory
-more abstract as it builds an explanation
 Theoretical Frameworks (Paradigms)
-very abstract; develop ways for looking at
the social world
Levels of Theory
 Micro-Level Theory
-small slices of time, space, numbers
ex. A particular election, a select group
 Meso-Level Theory
-intermediate level; ex. A movement
 Macro-Level Theory
-larger aggregates; ex. An entire society
Prediction and Explanation
Every time I call
my mother, the
Chicago Cubs win
their game that
day.
Can this possibly
be an acceptable
explanation for the
Cubs winning?
Causal Explanations
 1. Temporal Order: Cause Before Effect
-Does the call cause the Cubs to win or
does the fact that the Cubs won cause
me to call my mother?
 2. Association: A patterned way or an
appearance of a pattern.
Causal Explanation
 3. Elimination of other Alternatives: Also
known as “spuriousness.” Perhaps I only
call my mom on days when I know the
Cubs have a weak opponent (only the
Reds) or are playing well (which is
never).
 Control Variables are utilized to help
eliminate spuriousness.
Positive-Negative
Positive relationship: higher value
on cause variable leads to higher
value on effect variable
Negative relationship: higher value
on cause variable leads to lower
value on effect variable, and vice
versa
Positive and Negative
Relationships
 Positive: The more
you study for
Political Research,
the more points you
will earn on the
exam.
 Negative: The more
you party, the less
points you will earn
on your Political
Research exam.
Structural Explanations
 A sequence of phrases or parts that comprises
the whole
 Example: Various social networks combining to
form a whole
 Used in network, sequence, and functional theory
Interpretive Explanations
Just as it sounds…
Interpretive explanations seek to
understand different attributes and
characteristics of the social
environment.
Overall, interpretive explanations
seek to “get a feel” for what occurs
and why it occurs.
Major Approaches
 1. Positivist Approach
 2. Interpretive Approach
 3. Critical Approach
 4. Thank Goodness we are almost
through with Theory.
Positivist Approach
 Hard Facts
 A very “natural sciences” approach
 Logical
 Nomothetic
 Replication (REMEMBER) is essential.
Interpretive Approach
 Human social life is “qualitatively”
different than the natural science/hard
facts approach.
 Ideas, beliefs, perceptions should be
taken into account.
 Ideographic—specific description
Critical Approach
Puts “knowledge into action.”
Research is not value free; an
agenda or a political or moral
obligation often exists.
Common Pitfalls
1) Begging the Question
2) Circular Argument
3) Post Hoc Explanation
Review
Aspect
Type of Social Theory
Direction
Inductive or Deductive
Level
Micro, Meso, or Macro
Explanation
Causal, Interpretive, or
Structural
Abstraction
Empirical Generalization,
Middle Range, Framework, or
Paradigm