CHAPTER
ELEVEN
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Using Language
©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Language is important
• 1.. Contrary to popular belief,
language does not simply mirror
reality.
• 2. Language helps create our sense
of reality by giving meaning to
events.
– a. Language is not neutral.
– b. The words we use to label an
event determine to a great extent
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©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
• 3. Words are vital to thinking itself.
– a. Thought and language are closely
linked.
b. On most occasions when we are
looking for “just the right word,” what
we are really looking for is just the right
idea.
• 4. Words are the tools of a speaker’s
craft.
– a. Different words have different uses—
just like the tools of any profession.
– b. Public speakers must choose the
right words for the job they want to do.
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Denotative Meaning
The literal or dictionary meaning of
a word or phrase.
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Connotative Meaning
The meaning suggested by the
associations or emotions triggered
by a word or phrase.
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Guidelines for Using Language
• Accurately
• Clearly
• Vividly
• Appropriately
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Using Language Accurately
• A. Using language accurately is as vital to
a speaker as using numbers accurately is
to an accountant.
– 1. Speakers need to be sensitive to the
shades of meaning of different words.
– 2. Speakers should not use a word
unless they are confident of its
meaning.
• B. Speakers who have serious aspirations
should develop a systematic plan for
improving their vocabulary.
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Using Language Clearly
• 1. One way to ensure that a speaker’s
meaning is clear is to use familiar words.
• 2. A second way to ensure that a
speaker’s meaning is clear is to use
concrete words.
• 3. A third way to ensure that a speaker’s
meaning is clear is to eliminate linguistic
“Clutter” (refers to the habit of using many
more words than is necessary to express
a speaker’s meaning.)
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Abstract vs. Concrete Language
Physical activity
abstract/general
Sports
Golf
Professional golf
Tiger Woods
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concrete/specific
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Simile
An explicit comparison introduced with
the word “like” or “as,” between things
that are essentially different yet have
something in common.
Air pollution is eating away at the
monuments in Washington, D.C., like a
giant Alka-Seltzer tablet.
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Metaphor
An implicit comparison, not introduced
with the words “like” or “as,” between
two things that are essentially different
yet have something in common.
America’s cities are the windows through
which the world looks at American
society. (Henry Cisneros)
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Parallelism
The similar arrangement of a pair
or series of related words, phrases,
or sentences.
The denial of human rights anywhere is
a threat to human rights everywhere.
Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice
everywhere. (Jesse Jackson)
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Repetition
Reiteration of the same word or set
of words at the beginning or end of
successive clauses or sentences.
We are a people in a quandary about the
present. We are a people in search of our
future. We are a people in search of a
national community. (Barbara Jordan)
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Alliteration
Repetition of the initial consonant
sound of close or adjoining words.
We should not demean our democracy
with the politics of distraction, denial,
and despair. (Al Gore)
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Antithesis
The juxtaposition of contrasting
ideas, usually in parallel structure.
Ask not what your country can do for
you; ask what you can do for your
country. (John F. Kennedy)
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Avoiding Sexist Language
• Avoid the generic “he”
• Avoid the use of “man” when referring to
both men and women
• Avoid stereotyping jobs and social roles
by gender
• Avoid unnecessary or patronizing gender
labels
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Avoid the Generic “He”
Ineffective:
Each time a surgeon walks
into the operating room, he
risks being sued for
malpractice.
More Effective: Each time a surgeon walks
into the operating room,
she or he risks being sued for
malpractice.
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Avoid the Use of “Man”
Ineffective:
If a large comet struck the
earth, it could destroy all
of mankind.
More Effective: If a large comet struck the
earth, it could destroy all
human life.
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Avoid Stereotyping
Jobs and Social Roles
Ineffective:
Being a small businessman in
the current economic climate
is not easy.
More Effective: Being a small businessperson in
the current economic climate is
not easy.
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Avoid Unnecessary or Patronizing
Gender Labels
Ineffective:
Sandra Day O’Connor is an
outstanding lady judge.
More Effective: Sandra Day O’Connor is an
outstanding judge.
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