Social Research
Methods
Interviews
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We need interviews –
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A model of the symbolic interactionist view of
question-answer behaviour…
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I
Interviewer
Encodes question, taking into
account own purposes, and
presumptions/ knowledge about
the respondent, and perceptions
of the respondent's
presumptions/ knowledge about
self (i.e. the interviewer)
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II
Respondent
Decodes question, taking into
account own purposes and
presumptions/ knowledge about
the interviewer, and perceptions
of the interviewer's presumptions/
knowledge about self (i.e. the
respondent)
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IV
Interviewer
Decodes answer, taking into
account own presumptions/
knowledge about the respondent
and perceptions of the
respondent's presumptions/
knowledge about self (i.e. the
interviewer)
III
Respondent
Encodes answer, taking into
account own presumption/
knowledge about the
interviewer and perceptions of
the interviewer's presumptions/
knowledge about self (i.e. the
respondent)
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But interviews are everywhere
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Silverman – we are part of an 'interview society'.
Interviews seen as making sense of our lives. E.g.
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News interviews
Talk shows
Documentaries
Research interview
Interviews pervade and produce our contemporary
cultural experiences and knowledge of our authentic
personal, private selves. (Silverman 1993)
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And, different theory suggests
different interviews
What is your epistemological position?
 Questions should connect to your ontological
position
The knowledge we are looking for must be linked to
the ontological position.
e.g. Topic = racism
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a study of attitudes - attitudes are meaningful components
of a social world
a study of discourse - our social world is constructed
through the words we use
a study of institutional racism - our world is seen to be
structurally defined
(Mason, 1996)
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Advantages of Interviews
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Flexible, line of inquiry modifiable
can use NVC for more information
gets behind the immediate level of response
– why might s/he hold such a view?
can be used with little fore-knowledge of the
situation
situational - gets respondent’s
view/framework/interpretation
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Disadvantages
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not standardised
not 'replicable'
time consuming, expensive
sometimes difficult to get co-operation of
respondents
results difficult and time consuming to
analyse
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Type of Interview - Structure
Respondent Interviews Interviewer is in charge
1. Fully structured e.g. questionnaire
2. Semi-structured – ‘check list’ perhaps some
questions already worded
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Type of Interview - Structure
cont.
Informer interviews Interaction between researcher’s agenda and
informer's agenda
3. Unstructured/ in depth – broad area, but
more like a free conversations (develops as
the interview progresses)
To produce 'thick descriptions'. (Geertz)
Interviewees are deliberately encouraged to
produce elaborated and detailed answers.
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Type of Interview - Situation
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Active
Biographical
Oral history
Collaborative/Group (research or marketing)
including Focus groups
Debates and confrontational
Long Interview, repeated interviews
Multiple Interviewer
Projective
Narrative
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Interview
schedule/guide/question list
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Decide on research topic
Generate puzzlements (what is problematic or
interesting)
Create a list of research questions (related to the
topic)
Generate list of issues, topic, themes, subjects etc.
that people can talk about that relate to these
questions
Put topics in logical order and like topics together.
Use comprehensible language.
Avoid leading questions
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Sequence of events in an
interview
Introduction, establish relationship, explain aim of
interview.
Who you are, what you are doing, again negotiate
issues of anonymity and the boundaries of
confidentiality, what will happen to any findings,
how long will the interview last.
Warm-up, simple questions
1.
2.
3.
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Throw-away questions, usually factual in orientation.
Main body of interview - shopping list of issues
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Sequence of events cont.
Cool off questions, diffuse tensions
4.
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Finish on uncontentious areas – easy questions especially
if previous ones have been ‘difficult’
Closure, thanks
5.
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Further appointment interviewer’s responsibility, try not to
run over time
After the tape recorder is switched off - ‘off the
record’
6.
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Interviewee becomes more relaxed
Makes lots of useful asides relating to your research
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Types of questions
1.Factual and descriptive:
Respondent provides statements about
activities
2.Structural
How respondents organise their knowledge,
how categories are used, what words mean
3.Contrast
Meaning of situations to respondents,
comparison with other events in their lives
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Types of questions cont.
4. Generative Question
‘The interviewer’s task is to make the informant tell the
story of the area of interest in question as a consistent
story of all relevant events from its beginning to its end.’
(Hermanns, 1991, p183)
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Usually deployed in life story or narrative research
Formulated broadly but also sufficiently specific for the
domain of interest to be taken up as the central theme.
Crucial not to interrupt or obstruct.
The interviewer listens, empathises, reinforces, tries to
understand.
When interviewee finished their story, interviewer can ask
more direct questions, e.g. re gaps in the story or for
clarification.
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Berg’s Four Styles of
Questions
Essential
Concerned with the central focus of the study
May be placed together or separated throughout the
schedule
Extra
Roughly equivalent to certain essential questions but
worded slightly differently
Throw-away
Used to develop rapport
Often at the beginning – demographics or general
questions around the research
Can be used for ‘cooling off’ or ‘containment’
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Berg’s Four Styles cont.
Probing/prompting
A means of drawing out more complete accounts
Asking for elaboration:
‘Could you tell me more?’ ‘What happened next?’
‘Did it?’ ‘How Come?’
Use probes in order of imperativeness
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An expectant glance
Um hm, mm, or yes followed by an expectant glance
What else?
What other reasons? What else happened? Etc.
Please tell me more about that.
I'm interested in all your reasons. (reserve for the most
evasive respondents!)
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Good Practice
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Listen more than you speak
Use straightforward, non-threatening questions
Avoid questions with ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answers
Eliminate cues from interviewer
Go with a prepared list of topics or issues
Get familiar with subject matter beforehand
Make good use of probes
Allow respondent time to think
Enjoy the interview
Keep a full record of sessions
Maintain confidentiality
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Developing Interviewing Skills
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Practice
Pilot Interviews (similar respondents)
Video and watch own interviews
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Using technology
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Telephone interviews
Often shorter, no NVC, better for semistructured. OK for straightforward topics,
well-informed/literate respondents.
CATI (computer assisted telephone
interviews) usually structured.
Interviewing with e-mail. Takes a long time,
but can use messages for cross-reference.
Not face-to-face, anonymity?
Video conferencing (Skype, iChat etc.)
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Recording
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Take notes during interview, write up notes soon
afterwards about hunches, circumstances, etc.
Facesheet data (on respondents and their
background)
Record interview
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Use good microphone
Use good, new tapes and good recorder
Cassettes best (cheap, easy to transcribe)
Mini-disk good
MP3 recorders (avoid dictation machine versions – not
good mics)
Video (more intrusive but now much cheaper)
Check equipment, take spare batteries,
Make duplicates ASAP
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Transcription
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Do your own (5-6 hrs per 1 hr interview)
Pay transcriber.
Use transcription machine
Use MP3 version and transcription software
Use voice recognition software (by respeaking what you hear)
Check accuracy of transcriptions.
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