Token Economies
The Scooby Doo Classroom
Development and Generalization of
adaptive behaviors through contrived
reinforcement programs
Advantages of Token Economies
Immediate, unobtrusive delivery of reinforcers
Allows for delay of reinforcement
More and more frequent reinforcement can be
delivered and for a longer time
Ease of generalization
Greater individuality of reinforcement
Structures administrators attention and
reduces subjectivity
Allows for differential valuing of performance
Disadvantages of Token Economies
Requires that goals be concrete and specific
Can lead to dependency if weaning not done
Requires a great deal of structure and
organization by the administrator
Can be costly if tangible reinforcers used
May prevent or distract administrator from
learning more appropriate strategies for
controlling behavior
May be easily abused
Requires much time and attention
When to Use Token Economies
WHEN ALL ELSE FAILS: Other, less
intrusive, strategies have been tried and
found not to work
When behavior problems are severe
and require a highly structured,
consistent, predictable environment
When clients cannot wait an extended
time for rewards
Setting Up a Token Economy 1:
Selecting Backup Reinforcers
Select the least intrusive reinforcers you can
get away with
Select reinforcers that are interesting to the
clients
Have a variety of reinforcers available
Include occasional bonus or surprise
reinforcers
Periodically change the backup reinforcers to
prevent satiation
Setting Up a Token Economy 2:
Selecting Tokens: Characteristics
They should be available in large amounts
They should be durable
They should be interesting and attractive
They should be dispensible without intruding
into or distracting from ongoing activities
They should not be reproducible or available
other than through the program
They should be difficult to steal or extort
from each other
Setting Up a Token Economy 3:
Types of Tokens to Consider
Tangibles (e.g., buttons, poker chips,
counters, washers, stars, paper clips, play
money, marbles)
1. Preferably, use soft tokens if noise may be
a problem
2. Use a receptacle to hold tokens
Symbolic tokens (e.g., checkmarks, points,
happy faces, stamps, stickers, etc.
Example of Token Economy System
Example of Token Economy System
Example of Token Economy System
Setting Up a Token Economy 4:
Setting Prices for Backup Reinforcers
Use law of supply and demand
Consider therapeutic value of the behavior
Have a variety of prices
Set prices before dispensing tokens
Initially, set prices so that everyone has the
opportunity to purchase backup reinforcers
Let clients know in advance what the prices of the
backup reinforcers will be
After the first exchange or two, do not announce
prices until exchange time
Change prices after each exchange
Setting Up a Token Economy 5:
Identifying Target Behaviors
Target behaviors should be specific and
precise
Target behaviors should be observable
and measurable
Target behaviors should readily transfer
to the real world
Setting Up token Economies 6:
Establishing Rules
Rules should be stated positively and
emphasize productivity and achievement
Rules should be understood and
remembered by all clients in the program
Keep the list of rules relatively short
Allow clients to help in establishing the
rules
Incorporate procedures for changing rules
and for arbitration of rule disputes
Setting Up a Token Economy 7:
Keeping Records
Program effectiveness is greatly enhanced
by accurate and complete record keeping
Continuous records should be kept
concerning
1. The occurrence or nonoccurrence of
target behaviors
2. The time and number of tokens delivered
to each student
3. The time and frequency of token
exchanges
Running the Token Economy 1:
Getting Started
Sampling the backup reinforcers
1. Demonstrate the reinforcers, allowing
clients to sample them
2. Make the reinforcers appealing to the
clients (sell them)
Establishing the value of the tokens
The 1st day, give each client a token for
doing something appropriate immediately,
explaining how to earn them and what they
can be exchanged for
Running the Token Economy 2:
Beginning the Program and
Dispensing the Tokens
Initially, dispense tokens often, gradually
decreasing the no. after a few days
Dispense tokens immediately and quickly
Always mention the client’s name and the
behavior that is being reinforced
Dispense tokens quietly and unobtrusively
so as not to focus attention on them
Don’t mention tokens when dispensing
Running the Token Economy 3:
Token Exchange Times
Initially, have frequent exchanges
Exchange times should become less and less
frequent
The next exchange time should be
announced in advance
Set a limit on how many tokens a client may
accumulate or carry over from one exchange
time to another, perhaps by losing all
unspent tokens
Phasing Out the Token Economy 1:
Naturalizing the Program (Weaning)
Introduce and gradually increase delays in
the delivery of reinforcement
Make dispensing of tokens increasingly
random and intermittent
Gradually switch from token reinforcement
to more natural reinforcers
Make the tokens increasingly less valuable to
the clients
Phasing Out the Token Economy 2:
“Earning Off” the System
Clients maintaining a specified standard of
appropriate behavior should be allowed to get
off the token system
Clients earning a predetermined minimum no.
of daily tokens should be given special bonus
“earn off” points
Clients need to be motivated to “earn off”
1. Give bonus prizes to “graduates”
2. Give graduates noncontingent access to
backup reinforcers
3. Give graduates special privileges
Phasing Out the Token Economy 3:
Transferring Control to Clients
Control of the program can gradually be
transferred to the clients
Clients should be given increasingly greater
responsibility for:
1. deciding which behaviors need changing
2. how many tokens it should earn
3. determining when the behavior occurs
4. dispensing the tokens upon completion of
the target behaviors
5. exchanging tokens for the backup
Using Punishment in a Token
Economy 1: Response Cost
Remove a previously determined number
of tokens or points for previously identified
unacceptable behavior
If a client resists, penalize additional points
Include rule violations as part of the
backup menu (must pay for misbehavior)
Do not overpenalize or tokens may lose
their value and client’s motivation to
perform may be reduced
Reserve penalties for the worst offenses
Using Punishment in Token Economy
2: Timeout
Response cost is the preferred form of
punishment
Use timeout from token spending if
response cost does not work in which a
specific time period is designated when a
student may not exchange earned tokens
Use timeout from the opportunity to earn
tokens
Problems in Token Economies I:
Client-Related Problems
Hassles, arguments, and complaints: clients
may attempt to get unearned tokens or
backup reinforcers for which they have
insufficient tokens
Hoarding (failure to exchange tokens)
Counterfeiting, theft, and extortion which
may result from insufficient monitoring of
token administration
Unresponsive clients
Fixing Problems in Token Economies
1: Hassles, Arguments, Complaints &
Hoarding
Avoid hassles, arguments, complaints,
attempts at bargaining by ignoring them
Ignore any mention of tokens except at
exchange times
If the problem persists, impose a penalty
For hoarding, following token exchange,
clients should lose all unspent tokens
Fixing Problems in Token Economies
2: Unresponsive Clients
Do not require unresponsive clients to
participate for about a week
After about a week, prime them by giving
them a “free” day in which noncontingent
tokens are given which can be exchanged
for backup reinforcers
The next day, make it easy for them to earn
tokens, gradually increasing requirements
Fixing Problems in Token Economies
3: Counterfeiting, Theft, and Extortion
Individualize and customize the tokens so
that they are identifiable as belonging to a
particular client and cannot be reproduced
Keep duplicate records of number of tokens
earned by each client
Punish these offenses with response cost or
timeout
Problems in Token Economies II:
Administrator-Related Problems
Using tokens as bribes or threats which
focus undue attention on the tokens and
causes clients to become overly dependent
on the tokens and develops a mercenary
attitude on the part of clients
Feeling sorry for clients who are short of
tokens
Fixing Problems in Token Economies
4: Presenting Noncontingent Tokens
Do not extend charity or loans as these
destroy the contingent relationship between
behavior and reinforcer
If a client is continually short of tokens
something is wrong with the program
Too much may be expected of the client
The client may be excessively ignored
Problems in Token Economies III:
System-Related Problems
Token inflation (gradual increase in prices
of backup reinforcers) due to clients
earning too many tokens (too lenient?)
Token depression (gradual decrease in
prices of back reinforcers) due to clients
earning too few tokens (too strict?)
Confusion possibly due to the program
being too complex
Fixing Problems in Token Economies
4: Token Inflation, Deflation,
Confusion
Adjust contingencies so students are not
earning too many or too few tokens by
making contingencies stricter or more
lenient, as appropriate
Make sure that a reasonable number of
tokens is being earned
Confusion is to be expected initially but if
the problem does not work itself out in a
few days, institute a simpler program