Collecting Primary Data:
Interviews
Objectives
After this session you will be able to:
• Describe and choose between structured, semistructured, non-directive, focused and informal
interviews on the basis of the objectives of the
research.
• Select between using interviews and selfcompleted questionnaires.
• Produce valid and reliable interview schedules.
• Conduct an interview skillfully, tactfully, safely
and ethically.
Definition
An interview is a conversation between
people in which one person has the role of
researcher.
Interviews or questionnaires?
Interviews
• Need for highly
personalized data.
• Opportunities required for
probing.
• A good return rate is
important.
• Respondents are not
fluent in the native
language of the country,
or have writing difficulties.
Questionnaires
• Large numbers of
respondents must be
reached.
• Better reliability of data is
desired.
Pros and cons of interviews
Pros
• In depth exploration.
• Clarification of
answers.
• Probes.
• Eliciting perspectives
and stories.
Cons
• Time (arranging then
conducting
interviews).
• Costs.
• Sample size needs to
be limited.
• Transcription of data
(10 hours for a onehour interview).
Getting an interview may
depend on…
• Your status: Are you ‘internal’ to the organization or
completing a research project for an external client?
If an internal researcher, how senior are you in the
organization – and how senior compared to the
interviewee?
• The project: Is the project of interest to the potential
respondent? Is there a potential pay-off?
• Yourself: Do you seem trustworthy, personable and
professional?
Types of interview (1)
Volume of data
• Structured: Pre-prepared,
standardized questions recorded on
schedule
• Semi-structured: A list of questions,
but the order may change and not all
may be used.
• Non-directive: No pre-prepared
questions, but getting the respondent
to talk about the subject. Check for
accuracy and rephrase answers.
Types of interview (2)
Volume of data
• Focused: Interviewer has some
prior knowledge of respondent’s
issues and is able to refocus the
interview if respondent strays
• Informal conversational: No preplanning. Questions generated
spontaneously as interview
progresses
Interviewing skills
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Preparation (pens, paper, seating
arrangements, tape recorder).
Building rapport with respondent.
Use of language.
Active listening skills.
Improvising.
Testing and summarizing understanding
Recording data.
Closing the interview.
Tape recording interviews
• Tape record if
possible.
• But ask permission
first.
• Ensure equipment
works.
• Doing own
transcription allows
for researcher to
interact with the data.
When interviewing DO
• Seek permission to ask
questions.
• Ask mixture of open and
closed questions.
• Listen carefully.
• Repeat responses.
• Ask additional probing
questions.
• Be sensitive to
misunderstandings and/or
embarrassment.
• Abandon interview if it is
not working.
When interviewing DON’T:
•
•
•
•
Ask leading questions.
Agree or disagree with the response.
Rush the questions.
Continue if the respondent appears
upset, angry or withdrawn.
Questioning skills
Avoid questions that:
• Contain jargon.
• Use prejudicial language.
• Are ambiguous.
• Lead the respondent.
• Include double questions.
• Contain hypothetical statements.
• Probe personal or sensitive issues.
• Require memory recall or knowledge the
respondent does not possess.
Internal validity
Validity is strengthened by:
• Using interview techniques that build rapport
and trust, thus giving informants the scope to
express themselves.
• Prompting informants to illustrate and expand on
their initial responses.
• Ensuring that the interview process is sufficiently
long for subjects to be explored in depth.
• Constructing interviewing schedules that contain
questions drawn from the literature and from
pilot work with respondents.
Arksey and Knight (1999)
External validity
• Select a sample that allows for a subject to
be viewed from all relevant perspectives.
• Keep increasing the sample size, or subsamples that represent different
perspectives, until no new viewpoints are
emerging from the data.
Arksey and Knight (1999)
Dangers of bias
• Departures from the interviewing instructions.
• Poor maintenance of rapport with the
respondent.
• Altering factual questions.
• Rephrasing of attitude questions.
• Careless prompting.
• Biased probes.
• Asking questions out of sequence.
Oppenheim (1999)
Dealing with problem
respondents
• Acting ethically means
being sensitive to
respondents who may be:
– Nervous
– Stressed
– Embarrassed
– Lacking in subject
knowledge
• Be prepared to terminate
interview.
Why focus groups?
•
•
•
•
Low cost.
Stimulates ideas.
‘Safe’ environment.
Gratifying for
participants.
• Generates multiple
perspectives.
• Key themes tend to
emerge.
Using a focus group
•
•
•
•
Set up room.
Arrange microphones.
Get permission to record.
Set out purpose of
session.
• People introduce
themselves.
• Ask open questions.
• Minimize own
(facilitator’s)
interventions.
Summary
• Interviews can be divided into five categories ranging from the
informal conversational to the completely structured.
• The choice of approach will depend on the objectives of the
research, with structured interviews eliciting more quantitative data
and unstructured or focused interviews, qualitative.
• The danger of bias in interviews stems not only from the type of
questions asked but the way in which they are articulated by the
interviewer.
• Interviewing is a skill and includes the ability to build rapport with
respondents while maintaining detachment, and observing and
listening in order to keep control of the interview.
• Be aware of some of the safety issues involved in interviewing,
particularly interviewing people in their own homes or in isolated
work situations. Use common sense to avoid potentially dangerous
situations. Carry a mobile phone and always let close confidants
know where you are.
• Ethical issues are of paramount importance since confidentiality may
be more difficult to maintain than in other forms of data gathering,
such as postal questionnaires.