Life Cycle Models for
High-Technology Projects
Applying Systems Thinking to Managing
Projects
Russell D. Archibald
Fellow PMI and APM/IPMA, PMP, MSc
PMI-São Paulo 4 th International Seminar
Sáo Paulo, Brazil, December 9-10 2004

Purpose of My Presentation
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To enhance your ability to:
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Develop the best life cycle model for your projects
Document your Project Life Cycle
Management System/PLCMS
Improve your PLCMS through systems thinking
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 2

4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
Presentation Outline
Categorizing Projects
Project Life Cycle Models & PLCMS
Hi-Tech Project Categories & Their Life
Cycles
Improving the PLCMS
Conclusions
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 3

1. Categorizing Projects
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Projects:
Are the common denominator for all aspects of project management
Exist in many sizes & types
Produce many different products & results
Can be classified in many different ways
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 4

1.
2.
4.
5.
3.
Recommended Major
Categories
Aerospace/Defense
Business &
Organizational
Change Projects
Communication
Systems Projects
Event Projects
Facilities Projects
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Information
Systems
International
Development
Media &
Entertainment
Product/Service
Development
Research & Dev.
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 5

2. P roject L ife C ycle Models &
PLC M anagement S ystems
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Many life cycle models are in use
They portray a project as an overall process or system
Their purposes include:
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To enable all to understand overall process
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To capture best experience, enable improvement
To relate roles, responsibilities, systems and tools to all elements of the project
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 6

Generic Life Cycle: 4 Phases
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Concept
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Initiation, identification, selection
Definition
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Feasibility, development, demonstration, design prototype, quantification
Execution
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Implementation, realization, production & deployment, design/construct/commission, installation and test
Closeout
Dec. 9-10 2004
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar 7

Generic Life Cycles
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Apply to any project
Too broad to be very useful, practical
Need to be tailored to the project category…
… And key environmental factors
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 8

3 Parameters to Work With:
1.
2.
3.
Number & definition of phases & subphases
Their inter-relationships: sequential, overlapping, repeated
Number, definition and placement of key decision points
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 9

Identify Deliverables: Each
Phase and Sub-Phase
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Documents related to the project:
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Objectives, scope, plans, schedules, reports, authorizations, work orders, etc.
Documents related to the product:
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Specs, drawings, product cost, reports, etc.
Physical products or results:
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Mock-ups, models, prototypes, test articles, tooling, equipment, software, facilities, materials, etc.
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 10

Defining Decision Points
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Key events/milestones – ‘gates’ – at start & end of a phase or sub-phase
Decisions typically authorize project manager & team to:
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Complete current phase, start next
Revise objectives, scope, schedule
Re-plan, re-start, repeat previous work
Terminate or put project on hold
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 11

Deliverables & Decision Points
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Decisions are often made based on contents or results of key deliverables
Therefore these two elements are closely linked
You can’t make good decisions without adequate information
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 12

Documenting a Project Life
Cycle Management Process
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Define the life cycle:
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Select the life cycle model to be used
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Name phases, sub-phases decision points
Establish inter-relationships among them
Portray the result: flow chart, narrative
Specify authorizing documents:
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Purpose & levels of approval authority
For initiation & major changes
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 13

Documenting PLCMS (Cont’d)
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Identify key roles & define responsibilities
Identify major deliverables by phase
Specify issue escalation procedures
Specify differences for:
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Major vs minor projects, or
Other project classes within a sub-category
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 14

3. Hi-Tech Project Categories
& Their Life Cycles
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4 (of 10) basic hi-tech categories:
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Communication Systems
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Information Systems
Product & Service Development
Research & Development
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 15

Hi-Tech in Other Categories
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Defense/Aerospace:
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Very advanced, specialized life cycles prescribed by DOD & NASA
Facilities:
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Very mature, specialized life cycle models
Hi-tech projects within programs in these and other categories can be placed in one of the preceding 4 hi-tech categories
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 16

Two Types of Hi-Tech Life
Cycle Models
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Predictive:
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Waterfall, Prototyping, Rapid Application
Development/RAD, Incremental Build,
Spiral
Adaptive:
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Adaptive Software Development/ASD,
Extreme Programming/XP, SCRUM
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 17

Predictive Life Cycle Models
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Waterfall
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Linear ordering phases, sequential or overlapping, no phase repeated
Prototyping
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Functional requirements and physical design specs are generated simultaneously
Rapid Application Development/RAD
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Based on an evolving prototype that is not thrown away
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 18

Predictive LC Models (Cont’d)
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Incremental Build
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Decomposition of large development effort into a succession of smaller components
Spiral
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Repetition of the same set of life-cycle phases such as plan, develop, build, and evaluate until development is complete
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 19

Adaptive Life Cycle Models
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Adaptive Software Development/ASD:
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Mission driven, component based, iterative cycles, time boxed cycles, risk driven, change tolerant
Extreme Programming/XP
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Teams of developers, managers, and users; programming done in pairs; iterative process; collective code ownership
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 20

Adaptive LC Models (Cont’d)
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SCRUM (as in rugby)
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Similar to above adaptive models with iterations called “sprints” that typically last
30 days
Defined functionality to be met in each sprint
Active management role throughout
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 21

XP Resources www.extremeprogramming.org/index/html www.industriallogic.com
www.xprogramming.com
www.objectmentor.com/home http://c2.com/cg/wiki?ExtremeProgrammin
gRoadmap
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 22

Impact of Environment on Life
Cycle Model Selection
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Project environment is of primary importance in selecting a LC model for a given project category:
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Organizational characteristics
Familiarity with involved technology
Competitive demands (schedule, other)
Other
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 23

Software Life Cycle Models
- Examples
Source:
“The Project Manager’s Guide to Software
Engineering’s Best Practices”
ISBN 0-7695-1199-6
IEEE Computer Society Press order #
BP01199
Chapter 7, “Software Life Cycle Process
Management”

IEEE/EIA Standard 12207 Life Cycle Processes & Roles

Simplified Project Life Cycle
Model - Software

Waterfall Life Cycle Model
- Software

Incremental Life Cycle Model
- Software

Incremental Waterfall
Development Model - Software

Evolutionary Life Cycle Model -
Software

Spiral Model of Development -
Software

NASA’s Project Life Cycle Model

Stage-Gate
TM
Life Cycle Process
Source: Cooper et al 2001 see www.prod-dev.com

4. Improving the PLCMS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Document the integrated project life cycle model
Document & describe the PLCMS
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Re-engineer the integrated process
Apply systems thinking: TOC
Implement the improvements
Repeat these steps as required
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 34

Re-Engineer the PLCMS
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Identify system constraints, gaps & weaknesses
Relate poor results to constraints & identify benefits to their removal
Look for speed bumps, accelerators
Redesign the PLCMS to remove constraints
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 35

Implement Improvements
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Obtain approval to conduct tests and analyses
Plan, approve & execute the improvement project to implement the revised PLCMS
Dec. 9-10 2004
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar 36

Rational Unified Process/RUP
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Process framework for
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Software development
Software customization
Also a ‘process product’ developed and maintained by IBM Rational:
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Integrated with a suite of SW tools
Available on CD-ROM or via Internet
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 37

Six Best Practices in RUP
1.
2.
3.
4.
Develop SW iteratively
Manage requirements
Use component-based architectures
Visually model SW
5.
6.
Continuously verify SW quality
Control changes to the SW
For info: www.maxwideman.com/papers/acquisition/intro.htm
Dec. 9-10 2004
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar 38

Apply Theory of
Constraints/TOC
(Source: Leach 2000)
1.
2.
3.
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Identify system constraints
Decide how to exploit system constraints
Subordinate all else to above decision
Elevate the system constraints
5.
Does the new constraint limit output?
Yes: Back to step 1 No: Beware inertia
Dec. 9-10 2004
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar 39

5. Conclusions
1.
Project categories are important:
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Based on end results best way (?)
Sub-categories also needed
Further classification within categories and sub-categories needed
(see http:/projectcategories.org
-- and join our team!)
Dec. 9-10 2004
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar 40

5. Conclusions
(Cont’d)
2.
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Project life cycle models must be designed for each category/subcategory
Define and inter-relate phases & subphases
Identify deliverables for each of these
Define & relate decision points
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 41

5. Conclusions
(Cont’d)
3.
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Project Life Cycle Management System
PLCMS must be well defined:
For each project category/sub-category
Enables application of systems thinking to improve the process
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 42

5. Conclusions
(Cont’d)
4.
Two types of life cycle models are used for high-technology projects:
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Predictive
Adaptive
With several variations within each of these
Selection depends on the key environmental factors affecting the project
Dec. 9-10 2004
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar 43

5. Conclusions
(Cont’d)
5.
6.
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Systematic improvement of PLCMS is achieved through:
Re-engineering the total system
Application of TOC to total PLCMS or to a given phase
Such improvement must be a major project management goal in every organization
Dec. 9-10 2004
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar 44

Further Reading
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Archibald: Managing High-Technology
Programs and Projects, 3 rd ed 2003
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Chapters 2 and 3
Download this paper
18 additional references given in the paper
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar Dec. 9-10 2004 45

Thanks for Listening
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Questions?
Download this paper and/or slides at www.russarchibald.com
go to ‘Author:Recent Papers’ & select title of paper
Contact me: russell_archibald@yahoo.com
Dec. 9-10 2004
Russ Archibald PMI-Sao Paulo
4th International Seminar 46