AS Physical Education
Transfer of Learning
What is transfer?
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‘The influence that one skill has on the
learning and performance of another.’
Important links between ‘transfer’ and
Schema Theory
All learning is based on some form of transfer.
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After early childhood all new patterns of
movement arise out of previous experience
Positive transfer
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Occurs when one skill enhances the learning
and performance of another.
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E.g. The skill of throwing transfers positively to
the racquet arm action of a tennis serve.
Positive Transfer
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Often performers are proficient in a number of activities
Natural abilities e.g. balance, co-ordination, explosive
strength
Abilities help formulate patterns of movement (schemas) that
relate across different activities
This relationship is positive transfer
Australian primary schools target abilities to teach
fundamental movement skills/patterns e.g. catching, kicking,
over-arm throwing to provide a ‘pool of experience’ or
schemas
These movement schemas can be utilised later in learning
more complex skills/patterns (sports specific skills)
Negative transfer
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Arises when one skill hinders or impedes the
learning and performance of another skill.
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E.g. loose wrist required to play a badminton shot
transfers negatively to the firm wrist needed to
play a tennis shot.
Negative transfer
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Transfer can also be negative i.e. impede the learning of
new skills e.g. rounded swing in golf compared to the
straight bat swing needed in cricket, use of wrist in
badminton/tennis
Transfer appropriate processing: this may even occur in
instances where motor skill transfers negatively such as
badminton vs tennis
Cognitive information processing may be similar such as
need for shots to be timed and directed over a net
Therefore skills may have different patterns of
movement/schemas but similar information processing
requirements (transfer appropriate processing)
Other types of transfer
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Proactive transfer: previous skills influence learning of
new ones e.g. over-arm throw > tennis serve
Retroactive transfer: new skills impact on previously
learnt ones e.g. a goalkeeper who takes up rugby as a 2nd
row may find his jumping and catching skills in soccer
have improved due to his rugby experiences
Bilateral transfer: skills learnt by one side of the body
are transferred to the other e.g. dribbling a basket ball or
lay-up shot with equal competence with either hand. This
will require a transfer of movement patterns as well as
transfer appropriate processing from theory to practice
Other types of transfer
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Principle to skill: ideas, strategies and tactics of one game can
transfer to another e.g. invasion sports/net games
Near transfer: use of similar situations in practice to game e.g.
attack vs defence, team runs, small sided games
Far transfer: use unrealistic approach e.g. forward passing in
rugby to improve handling skills or getting a goalkeeper to
catch a rugby ball
Ability to skill: natural abilities nurtured into specific skills
e.g. fast and powerful youngster into sprinter
Practice to performance: match and competitive conditions
must be replicated in practice to ensure link between
‘rehearsal and reality’
e.g. full practice matches before a world cup
How can we ensure positive transfer?
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Make training as realistic as possible. After initial learning of
skill use game related situations and live opposition rather
than unopposed.
Thorndike suggests ‘identical elements theory’ that more
similar components of practice to game, the more likely
positive transfer to occur
How can we ensure positive transfer?
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Start with basics then make skill more
complex e.g. grip on rugby ball then actual
pass
How can we ensure positive transfer?
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Point out to player when transfer can be used
e.g. netball shot to start with in basketball,
then refine it
How can we ensure positive transfer?
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Use positive reinforcement to strengthen
correct transfer
How can we ensure positive transfer?
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Learn in groups of activities requiring similar
abilities e.g. passing and catching that require
coordination
Key terms
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Schema
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Generalised movement
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A store of information and experience
Adaptations of movement that will transfer to
influence the performance and learning of other
skills.
Transfer
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The influence of one skill on the learning and
performance of another skill.
Schema theory (Schmidt, 1975)
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Based on the idea that motor programmes are
not stored as separate items as presented by
the open loop theory.
Instead they are retained in long-term memory
as relationships with motor programmes.
These relationships are termed generalised
movements and they allow the performer to
adapt quickly in response to a situation.
Schema theory (Schmidt, 1975)
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Schema is a build up of experiences which,
the theory states, can be adapted in order to
meet the demands of new situations.
These relationships between muscular
proprioception and actual responses are stored
after they have been experienced.
Schema theory (Schmidt, 1975)
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Schema theory states that the performer stores
four items of information in the memory after
each movement.
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Knowledge of Initial Conditions
Knowledge of Response Specifications
Knowledge of Sensory Consequences
Knowledge of Movement outcomes.
Knowledge of initial conditions
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This includes the position of the body and
aspects of the environment.
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When about to shoot, a basketball player will
take into consideration the position of his feet, his
body, how far away he is from the basket and the
position of his opponent.
Knowledge of Response Specifications
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These are the specific requirements of the
skill to be performed at that particular
moment.
This will have the effect of recalling an
appropriate motor programme.
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The Basketball player will ‘tell himself’ what
actions need to take place, including the
appropriate technique, the required pace of the
ball and the angle of the shot.
Knowledge of Sensory Consequences
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These are the feelings associated with the
movement that are recorded in the memory
when putting the skill into action.
The performer remembers the kinaesthesis
both during and immediately after the action.
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The basketball player is aware of the ball leaving
his hands at a particular angle and speed.
Intrinsic feedback also informs him of the
position of his body.
Knowledge of Movement Outcomes
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This is information about the end result of the
movement or action compared with the
expected outcome. The performer notes
whether the action has been successful or
unsuccessful.
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The basketball player is aware of what should
happen when he shoots and takes note of whether
the shot was successful or otherwise
Recall Schema
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Includes knowledge of initial conditions,
response specifications, and to a certain
extent, knowledge of results.
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Has two functions:
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To store information about the production of the
generalised movement.
To start or initiate the movement.
Recognition schema
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Are used to evaluate responses and are
developed by using knowledge of initial
conditions, sensory consequences and
knowledge of results.
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Has two functions:
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It can control movement throughout its execution.
It can evaluate the effectiveness of performance.