Supplemental to
Caroline C. Fitz, Alyssa N. Zucker and
Laina Y. Bay-Cheng
Vol. 36(3), September 2012
and podcast
DS1


Explore potential differences among women
who endorse feminist ideals but not a
feminist identity
Examine the phenomenon of “I am not a
feminist, but…”
 (see also Zucker,
PWQ, 2004)
DS2




A response to discrimination and
marginalization
Aims to empower women and produce
equality
Can manifest in individuals’ attitudes,
identities, or both
What does feminism mean to you?
DS3

Who is a feminist?
◦ Women who label themselves as feminists and hold
feminist attitudes

Who is a nonlabeler?
◦ Women who do not label themselves as feminist yet
hold feminist attitudes

Who is a nonfeminist?
◦ Women who neither label themselves nor hold
feminist attitudes
DS4


Quasi-feminists: individuals who closely
resemble feminists in their attitudes and
values but not identification
Neoliberals: individuals who hold some of the
same positions as feminists on certain issues
but for different ideological reasons
DS5

Why might an individual be a “quasi-feminist?

Stigmatization of feminists

Little or no exposure to positive portrayals of
feminists
DS6


What is a neoliberal ideology?
Belief an equitable society is formed by
personal responsibility and competition
The “American Dream”:
Hard work + ability = success
-regardless of group
membership

DS7




Support equal pay for
equal work
Support affirmative
action
Question sexual
double standard
Support social justice
and collectivism
FEMINIST




Support equal pay for
equal work
Oppose regulating
opportunities
Adhere more to sexual
double standard
See social justice as
unnecessary-focus on
individual effort and
merit
NEOLIBERAL
DS8

Most past research has suggested
nonlabelers are either:
◦ All quasi-feminist
 Or
◦ All Neoliberal

This study examines potential differences
among nonlabelers into these two groups
DS9


Report weaker sexist
beliefs
Report less support of
meritocratic, systemjustifying and social
dominance beliefs
Quasi-Feminists


Report stronger sexist
beliefs
Report stronger
support of
meritocratic, systemjustifying and social
dominance beliefs
Neoliberals
DS10

Sample 1:
◦ 211 women
◦ Mean age 19.27
◦ 153 (73%) in 1st or 2nd year of college

Sample 2:
◦ 301 women
◦ Mean age 19.19
◦ 222 (73.8%) in 1st or 2nd year of college
DS11

Feminist Beliefs and Behavior Measure
◦ Categorize participants as nonfeminists, feminists
or nonlabelers
◦ Extent of agreement with three statements:
 Girls and women have not been treated as well as boys
and men in our society
 Women and men should be paid equally for the same
work
 Women’s unpaid work should be more socially valued

Indicate whether they identify as feminist
DS12

Perceptions of Meritocracy Inventory
◦ Extent to which one believes in a system of equal
opportunity where success is based on individual
merit

Just World Scale

Modern Sexism Scale
◦ Extent to which one believes people get what they
work for and what they deserve
◦ Extent to which an individual believes sexism no
longer impacts society
DS13

Ambivalent Sexism Inventory
◦ Attitudes toward women that are antagonistic or
attitudes that reinforce traditional stereotypes
about women

Equal Opportunity Scale
◦ How strongly one believes that hard work and
ability are the determinants of success and support
free competition without social policy to enforce
equality

Social Dominance Orientation Scale for Others
◦ Preference for inequality among social groups
DS14

Feminists=60 participants

Nonfeminists= 62 participants

Nonlabelers= 89 participants
◦ 45 (51%)=neoliberal
◦ 44 (49%)= quasi-feminist
DS15

Report weaker sexist
beliefs
Modern Sexism Scale

Hostile Sexism


Hostile Sexism
S1:M= 2.07 S2: M=2.08
S2:M= 2.47


Report stronger sexist
beliefs
Modern Sexism Scale

Benevolent Sexism
S2:M=2.70
S1:M= 2.67 S2: M=2.60
S2: M= 2.72

Benevolent Sexism
S2: M=3.06
All means between quasi-feminists and neoliberals were
significantly different
Hypothesis was supported
Quasi-Feminists
Neoliberals
DS16


Report less support of
meritocratic beliefs
Perceptions of
Meritocracy Inventory
S1:M= 3.21 S2: M=2.97


Report more support
of meritocratic beliefs
Perceptions of
Meritocracy Inventory
S1:M= 3.89 S2: M=3.84
All means between quasi-feminists and neoliberals were
significantly different
Hypothesis was supported
Quasi-Feminists
Neoliberals
DS17


Report less systemjustifying beliefs
Just World Scale


S1:M= 3.94 S2: M=3.81
S1:M= 2.76 S2: M=2.45

Equal Opportunity
Beliefs
S2: M=2.77
Report more systemjustifying beliefs
Just World Scale

Equal Opportunity
Beliefs
S2: M=3.72
All means between quasi-feminists and neoliberals were
significantly different
Hypothesis was supported
Quasi-Feminists
Neoliberals
DS18


Report less social
dominance beliefs
Social Dominance
Orientation
S2: M=2.36


Report more social
dominance beliefs
Social Dominance
Orientation
S2: M=2.91
Means between quasi-feminists and neoliberals
were significantly different
Hypothesis was supported
Quasi-Feminists
Neoliberals
DS19


See article for means for feminists and
nonfeminists for all measures
See article for additional information
regarding cluster analysis and MANOVA
results
DS20



What are the possible implications of these
findings?
Neoliberals see gender equality as a
meritocratic issue rather than a feminist issue
Political differences among nonfeminists,
feminists, quasi-feminists, and neoliberals
DS21

Experiences of discrimination can have a
detrimental impact on well-being
◦ This impact may be heightened for neoliberals who
believe the world is fair and just

Attributing negative experiences to
discrimination can protect self-esteem
◦ Neoliberals may be at risk for blaming themselves
rather than recognizing bias
◦ Quasi-feminists are more likely to recognize social
injustice when it occurs and not blame themselves
DS22


Neoliberals may be less
likely than quasifeminists or feminists to
work to improve women
and other minority
groups’ well-being
Neoliberals can be allies
in activism efforts if
issues are presented in
terms of fairness

Quasi-feminists may
engage in more
activism if they are
exposed to positive
attitudes about
feminists
DS23



Where should this topic of
study go next?
Develop a single
questionnaire to
differentiate between quasifeminists and neoliberals
Explore the impact of SES,
ethnicity, sexual orientation
or other identity factors
DS24
DS25