RESEARCH DESIGN &
IMPLEMENTATION
Professor Dr Rashidah Abdul Rahman
Deputy Director, Accounting Research Institute
Universiti Teknologi MARA
40450 Shah Alam
Email: shidah@salam.uitm.edu.my
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RESEARCH PROCESS
PHASEPH
I: DETERMINATION OF THE INFORMATION RESEARCH PROBLEM
Task Step 1: Define Research Problems/ Develop Problem Statement/Research
Questions
Task Step 2: Establish research objectives and determine the value of the
information/Significant of the Study
Task Step 3: Develop Research Framework/Hypotheses
PHASE II: DEVELOPMENT OF THE APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN
Task Step 4: Determine and evaluate the research design and data source
Task Step 5: Determine the sample plan and sample size
Task Step 6: Determine the measurement issues and scales
PHASE III: EXECUTION OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN
Task Step 7: Collect and process data
Task Step 8: Analyze data
Task Step 9: Transform data structures and information
PHASE IV: COMMUNICATION OF THE RESULTS
Task Step 10: Prepare and present final report
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Research Design
 Research design is a framework or
blueprint for conducting a research project.
 It is a plan to be followed to answer
research objectives, research hypotheses,
and/or research questions.
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Determine and Evaluate Research Design
Exploratory
Research
•Gathers preliminary information
that will help further define the
problem and suggest hypotheses.
Descriptive
Research
•Describes things as market
potential for a product or the
demographics and consumers’
attitudes.
Causal
Research
•Test hypotheses about causeand-effect relationships.
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Qualitative vs Quantitative Methods
Factors/Characteristics
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Research Goals/Objectives
Discovery and identification
Of new ideas, thoughts,
Validation of facts,
estimates, relationships,
predictions
Type of research
Normally exploratory
Designs
Descriptive and causal
designs
Type of questions
Open ended, semistructured,
Unstructured, deep probing
Mostly structured
Type of execution
Relatively short time frames
Significantly longer
time frames
Representativeness
Small samples, limited to
Sampled respondents
Large samples,
representative of target
population
Type of analyses
Debriefing, subjective,
content,
interpretive
Statistical, descriptive,
causal predictions
and relationships
Interpersonal
Communications,
Observation, interpretive
skills
Scientific, statistical
procedure and
translation skills
Very limited, only
preliminary insights and
understanding
Good inferences
about facts, estimates
relationships
Researcher skills
Generalizability of results
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What is Qualitative Research?
… is an effort to understand situations in their
uniqueness as part of a particular context and the
interactions there. This understanding is an end in
itself, so that it is not attempting to predict what
may happen in the future necessarily, but to
understand the nature of the setting –
what it means for participants to be in that setting,
what their lives are like, what’s going on for them,
what their meanings are, what the world looks like
in that particular setting – and in the analysis to be
able to communicate that faithfully to others who
are interested in that setting … the analysis strives
for depth of understanding
Patton (1985)
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Qualitative Study – Exploratory
Design
 Objective is to explore or search through a
problem or situation to provide insights and
understanding.
 Purposes:
– Formulate a problem or define a problem more
–
–
–
–
precisely
Identify alternative courses of action
Develop hypotheses
Isolate key variables and relationships
Establish priorities for research
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Common Qualitative
Methodologies
 Ethnography -the researcher (anthropologists)
looks at the entire group – more specifically a
group that shares a common culture – in depth
 Phenomenological Study - Attempts to
understand people’s perceptions, perspectives
and understandings of a particular situation
 Grounded Theory - To begin with the data and
use them to develop a theory – normally
substantive theory
 Case Study
 Content Analysis
 Basic or Generic Qualitative Study
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Quantitative ResearchDescriptive Design
 Objective is to describe or establish a
relationship of something
– Purpose:
•
•
•
•
To describe characteristics
To estimate percentage
To determine perceptions
To determine the degree to which variables are
associated.
• To make specific predictions
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Quantitative Research – Causal Design
– Objective is to obtain evidence of cause-andeffect relationships by means of
experimentation
– Purposes:
• Identify variables that are deemed the cause
and variables that constitute the effect of a
phenomenon.
• Predict the nature of the relationship
between causal variables and the effect to
be predicted.
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So which methods to choose…..
 Depends on the purpose of the study
 Depends on the information sought
 Depends on resources available
 Depends on the time available to conduct
the study
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IF YOU HAVE A POWERFUL
IMAGINATIVE MIND AND YOU LOVE
TO CONSTRUCT SOMETHING
UNIQUE OUT A MAZE OF
THOUSAND THINGS
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
ETHNOGRAPHICAL STUDY
HISTORICAL STUDY
CASE STUDY
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IF YOU ARE GOOD WITH
NUMBERS AND YOU LIKE
TO SEE EVENTS AND
THINGS IN TERMS OF
NUMBERS
CONSIDER DOING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH THAT
USES FANTASTIC STATISTICAL ANALYSES
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NEXT QUESTIONS TO BE
ASKED
HOW SHOULD THE
QUESTIONS BE
FORMULATED?
HOW SHOULD
THE VARIABLES
BE MEASURED?
WHAT TYPE OF DATA?
PRIMARY? SECONDARY?
HOW SHOULD THE DATA
BE GATHERED?
OBSERVATION?
INTERVIEW?
DOCUMENTATION?
WHO SHOULD BE
THE
SAMPLE?
SELECTION
PROCESS? HOW
MANY?
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SAMPLING ISSUES
 WHAT SAMPLE SIZE?
 TYPES OF SAMPLE SELECTIONS:
– SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
– STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
– CLUSTER SAMPLING
– CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
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Sampling Alternatives
Sampling Techniques
Probability Sampling Techniques
NonProbability Sampling
Convenience
Judgmental
Quota
Snowball
Sampling
Sampling
Sampling
Sampling
Simple Random
Systematic
Sampling
Sampling
Stratified
Cluster Sampling
Sampling
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 Probability Sampling
– When elements in the population have a
known chance of being chosen as subjects in
the sample have a known chance of being
chosen as subjects in the sample
– The sample can be confidently generalised to
the population
 Non-Probability Sampling
– When time or factors rather generalisability
become critical
– The sample cannot be confidently generalised
to the population
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 Simple Random Sampling
– Every element in the population has a known and
equal chance of being selected as a subject
 Systematic Sampling
– Involves drawing every nth element in the population
starting with a randomly chosen element between 1
and n
 Stratified Random Sampling
– Population is first divided into meaningful segments;
thereafter subjects are drawn
 Cluster Sampling
– Groups that have heterogeneous members are first
identified; then some are chosen at random
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Factors to consider when selecting sample size
 The variability in the population.
– This refers to the proportionate distribution of the characteristics
that are being studied.
 The required level of confidence.
– If a higher level of confidence is required in the result of the
research, then the larger the sample size is necessary.
 The required limits of accuracy.
– Generally, the larger the sample size, the more accurate the
results are likely to be as a predictor of population values.
 Allowance for non-response
– It is to be expected that non-response will occur in any the
survey. Therefore, it is best to make allowance for the nonresponse by increasing the sample size by the estimated amount
of non-response.
 Practical factors
– It is important for a researcher to consider the resource constraints. Time
and money are important factors to consider when selecting the
appropriate sample size.
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NEXT QUESTIONS TO BE
ASKED
HOW SHOULD
THE VARIABLES
BE MEASURED?
HOW SHOULD THE DATA
BE GATHERED? SURVEY?
OBSERVATION?
INTERVIEW? DOCUMENTATION?
WHAT TYPE OF DATA?
PRIMARY? SECONDARY?
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Data Collection
 Survey method
– Questionnaire
 Interviewing
– Interview Guide
 Focus Group
– Moderator’s Outline
 Observation
– Observation Checklist
 Triangulation
 Secondary data
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USES MEASURING INSTRUMENT CALLED
QUESTIONNAIRE
SURVEY
YOU CAN BUY, BORROW OR DESIGN
THE QUESTIONNAIRE
QUESTIONNAIRE HAS CONSTRUCT
VALIDITY
QUESTIONS ARE GROUPED ACCORDING
TO CONCEPTS/IDEAS RELATED TO IT
MEASUREMENTS USED ARE RELIABLE
ITEMS TO BE DISPERSED TO AVOID BIAS
CHECK IF THIS IS THE BEST WAY TO
OBTAIN THE DATA NEEDED
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BE SURE OF THE SAMPLE OF THE STUDY &
SAMPLING PROCEDURES
INCLUDE A SET OF INSTRUCTIONS
SURVEY
INCLUDE STAMPED, SELF-ADDRESS
ENVELOPE
QUESTIONS ARE GROUPED ACCORDING
TO CONCEPTS/IDEAS RELATED TO IT
ENSURE PROFESSIONAL LAYOUT
PILOT-TEST YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE
REVIEW YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE
DEVELOP MASTER LIST/DIRECTORY
SEND FOLLOW UP & THANK YOU LETTERS
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PRINCIPLES OF QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
1
Principles
of wording
Content and
Purpose of
question
Wording
And
Language
Type and
Form of
questions
Observation
Data
collection
methods
Questionnaires
Questionnaire
administration
Testing
goodness of
data
Sequencing
Classification data
or
Personal information
Interview
Categorization
2
Principles
of
measurement
Coding
Scales
and
scaling
Reliability and
validity
3
General
“getup”
Appearance and questionnaire
Length of questionnaire
Introduction to respondents
Instructions for completion
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PREPARE AN INTERVIEW CHECKLIST
INTERVIEW
BE PREPARED WITH YOUR SKILL IN
SHORTHAND WRITING OR YOU NEED TO
WRITE FAST
ASK PERMISSION TO TAPE THE
CONVERSATION
IDENTIFY PATTERNS WHEN INTERPRETING
YOUR DATA
YOU NEED TO TRANSCRIBE THE INTERVIEW
BE PREPARED TO WRITE DRAFT AFTER DRAFT
OR REWRITING
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In-Depth Interviewing
 Types of Interview questions?
Highly
Structured
Semistructured
 Wording of
 Mix of morequestions
and lesspredetermined
structured
 Order of
questions
question
predetermined
 Oral form of a
survey
Unstructured
 Open-ended
questions
 Flexible,
exploratory
 More like a
conversation
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Example: studying the role of mentoring in
the career development of a lecturer
Highly
Structured
Semistructured
Unstructured
Begin by giving
each respondent
a definition of
mentoring
Ask the person
to identify
someone who is a
mentor
Ask each
lecturer to
describe his or
her understanding
of mentoring
Ask each
lecturer to think of
someone who is a
mentor
Ask the
respondent to
share how he or
she got to be a
mentor
Ask question
about the
influences or
factors that have
helped to shape
the respondent’s
career
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Types of Questions
Example: Directors Training Program
Type of Question
Example
 Hypothetical Question: asks what the
respondent might do or what it might be like
in a particular question: usually begins with
“what if” or “suppose”
 Devil’s Advocate Question: challenges the
respondent to consider an opposing view
“Suppose it is your first day in
this directors’ training
program. What would it be
like?”
“Some people would say that
training program doesn’t
do any good to the
directors, especially those
who have been on the
board for a long time.
What would you say to
that?”
“What do you think the ideal
training program would be
like”
“Would you say that attending
directors’ training
programs would enhance
your role and
responsibilities as
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director?
 Ideal Position Question: asks the
respondent to describe an ideal situation
 Interpretive Question: advances tentative
interpretation of what the respondent has
been saying and asks for a reaction
Questions to Avoid
Type of Question
Multiple Questions
Example
How do you feel about the
instructors and the
classes?
Leading Questions
What emotional problems
have you had since
losing your job?
Yes-or-No Question
Do you like the program?
Has returning to school
been difficult?
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Other things to consider during an
interview
 The Interview Guide – a list of questions you intend to
ask
 At the beginning of the interview, clarify the following:
– The investigator’s motives and intentions and the inquiry’s
–
–
–
–
–
purpose
The protection of respondents through the use of pseudonyms (if
necessary)
Deciding who has the final say over the study’s content
Payment (if any)
Logistics with regard to time, place and number of interviews to
be scheduled
Seeking permission to record the interview
 Interviewer and Respondent Interaction
– The personality and skill of the interviewer
• Being respectful, nonjudgmental and non-threatening
– The attitudes and orientation of the interviewer
• Look interested and sympathetic
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Focus Group Interview
 Interaction among a small group of
people, between 6-12 with common
identifiable characteristics
 Handle by a moderator who uses a
discussion guide to stimulate discussions
among the group members
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SECONDARY DATA
ANNUAL REPORTS
GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS
MAGAZINES/ARTIFACTS
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TRIANGULATION APPROACH
IS WHERE YOU COMBINE MORE THAN ONE
RESEARCH APPROACH FOR YOUR STUDY
YOUR CHOSEN METHODOLOGY COULD BE
A SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTION TO THE
BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
TRIANGULATION IS NOW VERY MUCH
ENCOURAGED FOR YOUR PhD RESEARCH
YOU MAY NEED TO ANALYSE CONTENTS OF
REPORTS, BOOKS, STATEMENTS
YOU MAY NEED TO COMBINE QUALITATIVE
AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF DATA
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END OF PHASE II
PROCEED WITH PHASE III:
EXECUTION OF THE RESEARCH
DESIGN
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THANK YOU