Cognition
Chapter 11
Problem Solving and
Creativity
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Introduction
problem solving—used when you want to reach a
certain goal, but the solution is not immediately
obvious and obstacles block your path
initial state
goal state
obstacles
thinking—requires you to go beyond the information
you were given, so you can reach a goal
transformation of knowledge
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Understanding the
Problem
understanding the problem—construct a
mental representation of the problem, based on
the information provided in the problem and your
own previous experience
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Understanding the
Problem
Paying Attention to Important Information
identifying and then attending to the most
relevant information
Bransford and Stein (1984)
algebra story problems
distracting negative thoughts
effective problem solvers read the description of
a problem very carefully, paying particular
attention to inconsistencies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Understanding the
Problem
Methods of Representing the Problem
Symbols
translating words into symbols
oversimplification
misremembering the problem
Matrices
matrix—chart showing all possible combinations of
items
most useful for complex, stable, categorical
information
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Understanding the
Problem
Methods of Representing the Problem
Diagrams
instructions for assembling objects
hierarchical tree diagram
graphs
Visual Images
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Understanding the
Problem
Situated Cognition: The Importance of
Context
situated-cognition approach—our ability to
solve a problem is tied into the specific context
in which we learned to solve that problem
abstract intelligence or aptitude tests often fail to
measure real-life problem solving
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Understanding the
Problem
Situated Cognition: The Importance of
Context
real-life cognition more complex than traditional
cognitive approach
information-rich environments
social information
ecological validity
transfer failure
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Problem-Solving
Strategies
algorithm
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always produces a solution
sometimes inefficient
exhaustive search—try all possible answers
heuristic
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general rule
strategy in which you ignore some alternatives and
explore only those alternatives that seem especially likely
to produce a solution
costs and benefits of using heuristics
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Problem-Solving
Strategies
The Analogy Approach
analogy approach—using a solution to a similar,
earlier problem to help in solving a new problem
cross-cultural research
creative breakthroughs
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Problem-Solving
Strategies
The Analogy Approach
The Structure of the Analogy Approach
determining the real problem
problem isomorphs
surface features
structural features
failure to see analogies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Problem-Solving
Strategies
The Analogy Approach
Factors Encouraging Appropriate Use of
Analogies
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hints on comparing problems can reveal structural
similarities
trying several structurally similar problems before
the target problem
training to sort problems into categories
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Problem-Solving
Strategies
The Means-Ends Heuristic
means-ends heuristic
• identify the "ends" you want and then figure out the
"means" to reach them
• divide into subproblems
• reducing the difference between the initial state and
the goal state for each subproblem
• can be used in either forward or backward direction
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Problem-Solving
Strategies
The Means-Ends Heuristic
Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic
Greeno (1974)—Hobbits-and-Orcs problem
organizing a sequence of moves to solve a subproblem
sometimes the solution requires temporarily
increasing the distance to the goal
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Problem-Solving
Strategies
The Means-Ends Heuristic
Computer Simulation
computer simulation—computer program that will
perform a task the same way that a human would
Newell and Simon's General Problem Solver
difficulties with ill-defined problems—problems
where the goal is not obvious
Anderson's ACT model and "cognitive tutors"
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Problem-Solving
Strategies
The Hill-Climbing Heuristic
hill-climbing heuristic—when you reach a
choice point, choose the alternative that seems
to lead most directly toward your goal state
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useful when only the immediate next step can be
seen
less direct alternative may have greater long-term
benefits
encourages short-term goals, rather than longterm solutions
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Problem-Solving
Strategies
Individual Differences: Cross-Cultural
Comparisons in Problem-Solving
Strategies
Güss and Wiley (2007)
students in U.S., Brazil, India
questionnaire on preferences in problem-solving
strategies
frequency of use
effectiveness
ease of use
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Cross-Cultural Comparisons in
Problem-Solving Strategies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
bottom-up processing
top-down processing
Expertise
expertise—consistent exceptional performance on
representative tasks for a particular area
Knowledge Base
Memory
memory skills of experts tend to be very specific
chess experts' memory is better only if the information
fits a particular schema
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
Expertise
Problem-Solving Strategies
experts more likely to use the means-ends heuristic
effectively
experts more likely to emphasize structural features
when using the analogy approach
Speed and Accuracy
parallel processing
serial processing
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
Expertise
Metacognitive Skills
experts better than novices at monitoring their own
problem solving
experts better at judging the difficulty of the problem,
allocating time, recovering from errors
experts underestimate the amount of time novices will
require to solve a problem in the experts' area of
specialization
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
Mental Set
mental set—using the same solution from previous
problems, even though the problem could be
solved by a different, easier method
overactive top-down processing
Luchin's water-jar problem
fixed mindset
growth mindset
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
Functional Fixedness
functional fixedness—assign stable uses to an
object and fail to think about the features of the
object that might be useful in helping solve a
problem
Duncker's candle problem
emergencies
cross-cultural studies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem
Solving
our stereotypes can influence our beliefs about our
own abilities
gender stereotypes
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem
Solving
The Nature of Stereotype Threat
struggling with a popular stereotype may cause
additional anxiety that may lead to less effective
problem solving
stereotype threat—if you belong to a group that is
hampered by a negative stereotype—and you think
about your membership in that group—your
performance may suffer
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem
Solving
Research with Asian American Females
Shih and coauthors (1999)
compare the effects of two competing stereotypes using
three groups of Asian American women
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem
Solving
Research with Asian American Females
Shih and coauthors (1999) (continued)
1. Ethnicity-emphasis condition: One group of
participants were asked to indicate their ethnicity
and then answer several questions about their
ethnic identity. Then they took a challenging math
test. These women answered 54% of the questions
correctly.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem
Solving
Research with Asian American Females
Shih and coauthors (1999) (continued)
2. Control-group condition: A second group of
participants did not answer any questions
beforehand. They simply took the challenging math
test. These women answered 49% of the questions
correctly.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem
Solving
Research with Asian American Females
Shih and coauthors (1999) (continued)
3. Gender-emphasis condition: A third group of
participants were asked to indicate their gender
and then answer several questions about their
gender identity. Then they took the challenging
math test. These women answered only 43% of the
questions correctly.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem
Solving
Research with Asian American Females
Ambady and coauthors (2001)
• found similar pattern among Asian American girls
• reminding them of their gender resulted in a decline in
problem-solving scores
• reminding them of their ethnicity did not
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem
Solving
Research with European American Females
O'Brien and Crandall (2003)
math test identified as "known to show gender differences"
vs. "known to show no gender differences"
Johns and coauthors (2005)
providing a brief description of stereotype threat greatly
reduced gender differences in math-test scores
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem
Solving
Potential Explanations
• arousal/anxiety and working memory
• thought suppression reduces working memory
capacity
• interfere with the ability to construct problemsolving strategies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Stereotypes and
Problem-Solving
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
Insight Versus Noninsight Problems
insight problem—seems impossible until sudden
solution appears
noninsight problem—gradual solution
The Nature of Insight
gestalt psychologists vs. behaviorists
begin with inappropriate assumptions that need to be
discarded
incubation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Factors That Influence
Problem Solving
Insight Versus Noninsight Problems
Metacognition During Problem Solving
Janet Metcalfe (1986)—people's confidence builds
gradually for noninsight problems, but shows a
sudden leap in solving insight problems
"feeling-of-warmth" scale
considering previous similar problems as well as the
possibility that a different approach might be
required
thinking "outside the box"
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Metacognition During
Problem-Solving
Figure 11.4 “Warmth Ratings” for Answers That Were Correct, as a Function of Time
of Rating Prior to Answering.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Creativity
similarities to and differences from other forms of
problem solving
Definitions
novelty, originality
need to reach some goal
useful and appropriate
creativity—finding solutions that are novel, high
quality, and useful
ordinary vs. exceptional thinking
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Creativity
Approaches to Creativity
Divergent Production
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measure creativity in terms of the number of
different responses made
moderate correlations between divergent
production and other judgments of creativity
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Creativity
Approaches to Creativity
Investment Theory of Creativity
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"buy low and sell high”
produce a creative idea when no one else is
interested, then once the idea is popular, move
on to a new creative project
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Creativity
Approaches to Creativity
Investment Theory of Creativity (continued)
Characteristics of “Wise Creative Investors”
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intelligence
knowledge
motivation
encouraging environment
appropriate thinking style
appropriate personality
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Creativity
Task Motivation and Creativity
curiosity
intrinsic motivation—desire to work on a task for its
own sake
extrinsic motivation—desire to work on a task to
earn a promised reward
The Relationship Between Intrinsic Motivation
and Creativity
people are most likely to be creative when they are
working on a task that they truly enjoy
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Creativity
Task Motivation and Creativity
The Relationship Between Extrinsic
Motivation and Creativity
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students tend to produce less creative projects if
they are working on these projects for external
reasons
extrinsic motivation reduces creativity when it
controls you or limits your options
extrinsic factors that provide useful information can
enhance creativity
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Algorithms vs Experts Stereotypes and Problem-Solving
U.S. Navy Air Threat Assessment – Liebhaber &
Feher, 2002
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11
Algorithms vs Experts Stereotypes and Problem-Solving
Information to Consider
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Origin
IFF mode
Intelligence
Airlane
Altitude
ES
Speed
CPA
Feet wet
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Coordinated
Maneuvers
Wings clean
Range
Course
Own Support
Visibility
Weapon envelope
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Algorithm Weigh all of
the data.
Chapter 11
Algorithms vs Experts Stereotypes and Problem-Solving
What Experts Consider
Heuristic 1. Origin
2. IFF Mode
Evaluate
3. Intelligence
“important” data.
4. Altitude
Experts have schemas for types of
5. Airlane
aircraft they are likely to encounter.
6. ES
Very efficient and effective, but prone to
many biases. See Ch. 12.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 11