Jan Roscoe Publications
OCR Examinations
AS Level Physical Education H154
AS Module Section B
Acquiring Movement Skills
Part 2:
Development of Motor Skills
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
INDEX
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4
5
8
14
19
21
22
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- LEARNING KNAPP, SINGER DEFINITION
- PHASES or STAGES OF LEARNING (FITTS & POSNER)
- PHASES OF LEARNING
- GUIDANCE
- PRACTICE METHODS
- MENTAL PRACTICE
- KEY FEATURES OF PRACTICE SESSIONS
- PRACTICE METHODS CHOICE OF METHOD
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
2
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
LEARNING
KNAPP’s DEFINITION
learning may be considered to be a more or
less permanent change in performance,
associated with experiences but excluding
changes which occur through maturation and
degeneration, or through alterations in the
receptor or effector organs
SINGER’s DEFINITION
performance may be thought of as a
temporary occurrence, fluctuating from time
to time because of many potentially
operating variables
we usually use performance to represent the
amount of learning that has occurred
for the process of learning must be inferred
on the basis of observations of change in
performance
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
3
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
PHASES OF LEARNING (Fitts and Posner)
COGNITIVE PHASE (beginner)
initial learning of basic skill
understanding of the activity
analysis of techniques
use of models
ASSOCIATIVE PHASE
focus on movement
comparison of action with model
error detection and correction
skill still inconsistent
AUTONOMOUS PHASE (elite sportsman)
action automatic
attention can be given to environmental
aspects of activity
focus on tactics / strategy
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
4
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
PHASES OF LEARNING
COGNITIVE (EARLY) PHASE
skill learning goals are set and learning is begun
trial and error methods used
improvement is rapid, but movements are jerky
and uncoordinated
use of models and an initial look at techniques
demands high attention and concentration
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
5
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
PHASES OF LEARNING
ASSOCIATIVE (INTERMEDIATE) PHASE
specific motor programmes and subroutines are
developed relevant to sport
consistency and coordination improve rapidly,
timing and anticipation improve
comparison of action with model
gross error detection and correction is practised,
detailed feedback is utilised
improvement is less rapid
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
6
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
PHASES OF LEARNING
AUTONOMOUS (FINAL) PHASE
performance almost automatic (without conscious control),
performed easily without stress
high proficiency with habitual performance and attention
demands reduced
attention can be given to relevant cues and signals from the
environment
emphasis on tactics or strategy
errors detected and corrected without help
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
7
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
GUIDANCE
VERBAL
it is explained to
the learner what to
do
GUIDANCE
MECHANICAL
using a mechanical
aid to fix the
learner's body
positions
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VISUAL
the learner
watches a model
MANUAL
supporting or
physically moving
a learner's body
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
8
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
GUIDANCE
VISUAL GUIDANCE
mainly through demonstration
very important in the cognitive early phase of learning
a performer would learn by watching and imitating a
model
DEMONSTRATIONS
by video or poster
by human live model
by demonstration of techniques by a coach or teacher
should be realistic or appropriate or not too complex
should emphasise relevant aspects of a skill
should be repeated
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
9
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
GUIDANCE
VISUAL GUIDANCE continued
MODELS
should be of high status
should be technically competent or correct
THE LEARNER
should be attentive or retentive
should be capable of matching the demonstration (performer at
the appropriate level of learning)
THE COACH
should reinforce correct copying of skills
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
10
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
GUIDANCE
VERBAL GUIDANCE
often to accompany visual guidance
used more with competent performers at a later phase
of learning
the amount of verbal guidance must be controlled
the quality of this guidance important for effective
coaching or teaching
can be used for conditioning a response (giving
reinforcement)
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
11
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
GUIDANCE
MANUAL GUIDANCE
use of physical support (as in gymnast performing
somersaults)
or placing limbs in correct positions (as for a novice
thrower)
this helps with kinaesthetic awareness
useful for giving confidence, particularly for beginners
useful for safety reasons
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
12
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
GUIDANCE
MECHANICAL GUIDANCE
using a mechanical aid (stabilisers on a bike, flotation
devices for swimming, belay ropes for climbers,
somersault rig for trampolinists)
gives confidence and ensures safety
gives some idea of kinaesthetic sense of movement
not to be overdone because this form of kinaesthesis is
not the same as the real thing, the performer can become
over-reliant
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
13
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
PRACTICE METHODS
PRACTICE CONDITIONS
different ways of setting
up training sessions to
achieve optimum
performance
distributed
practice
variable
practice
massed
practice
PRACTICE
CONDITIONS
mental
practice
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overlearning
Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
14
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
PRACTICE METHODS
VARIABLE PRACTICE
in this method practice conditions are varied to
encourage the formation of schema
(see section 4 for a full description of schema and
how they are formed)
practice conditions should be as realistic as
possible
in as many different situations as possible
as near to the competitive or match situation as
possible
relevant to open skills
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
15
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
PRACTICE METHODS
MASSED PRACTICE
practice is done with no rest intervals with sessions
long in duration
good for ‘grooving’ of skills and to encourage an
habitual response
good for discrete skills of short duration
can lead to fatigue and boredom
there may be elements of negative transfer
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
16
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
PRACTICE METHODS
DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE
training sessions which include rest intervals which
could involve mental practice
good for the beginner and most skill learning
gives time to recover physically and mentally
good for potentially dangerous situations
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
17
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
PRACTICE METHODS
OVERLEARNING
this involves a learned skill that is habitual
because of many repetitions
motor programmes or schema are formed
and performed ‘automatically’
in response to a game or sporting situation
(stimulus)
this means that attention can be directed
peripherally
to other elements of a game (tactics or
strategy)
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
18
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
MENTAL PRACTICE or REHEARSAL
MENTAL PRACTICE
the mental or cognitive rehearsal of a skill
without actual physical movement
used by most top level sportsmen to visualise a
skill or movement
often prompted by tape or film or talk from a
coach
HOW IS IT USED?
used to review good practice and
compare with poor practice (failure)
used to rehearse the ‘feel’ of a skill before
action
used in dangerous situations to avoid risk
used to focus and direct attention
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
19
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
MENTAL PRACTICE
imagine success /
avoid failure
creates a mental
picture of skill
must be as realistic
as possible to be
effective
can be used to
simulate a whole
movement
sequence
USES OF MENTAL
PRACTICE
used to control
arousal level in
advance of
performance
can be used during
rest periods during
a performance
prevents physical
wear and tear
builds
self- confidence
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provides a mental
warm-up promotes a state
of readiness for
action
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used to focus
attention on
important aspects
of the skill
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produces small
muscle contractions
in the same sequence
as an actual practice
Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
20
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
KEY FEATURES OF PRACTICE SESSIONS
time
organisation
coaching
material
KEY FEATURES
OF PRACTICE
SESSIONS
organisation of
facilities and
equipment
organisation
of performers
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
21
Development of Motor Skills
OCR AS or A Level Physical Education AS unit G451
PRACTICE METHODS
CHOICE OF METHOD
maximise effectiveness taking into account:
– different levels of ability
– the activities or sport undertaken
– skill classification
– the schema development for the activity
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Section B Acquiring Movement Skills 2
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