DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEST OF INFERENCING
KELSEY DEPEW; TINA K. VEALE, PH.D.
EASTERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY
Sample Items
Background
Inferencing is the ability to make judgments based upon limited information. It is
necessary for basic problem solving, negotiating social interactions, and comprehension of
oral and written language (Botting & Adams, 2005; Richards & Anderson, 2003).
Inferencing provides a foundation for Theory of Mind (ToM; citation).
Few studies have examined inferencing skills.
oLack of consensus regarding the development of inferencing abilities of neurotypical
children (Sodian & Wimmer, 1987; Keenan, Tuffman, & Olson; 1994).
oChildren with language impairment and those with high functioning autism have
more limited inferencing abilities than typically developing peers (Letts & Leinonen,
2001; Norbury & Bishop, 2002; Botting & Adams, 2005).
Research Questions
Do the inferencing abilities of neurotypical children vary based on age?
Do the inferencing abilities of neurotypical children vary based on type of inference?
Methodology
Group comparative design
The researchers developed the Test of Inferencing based upon Johnson and von Hoff
Johnson’s (1986) ten inference types.
5 items were created for each inference type yielding 50 total test items.
For each item, the examiner verbally presented a one to four sentence scenario followed
by a question. Answers required subjects to infer information.
Subjects were selected based upon the following criteria: average language and
cognitive development based on average grade level performance; normal hearing acuity;
English as primary language.
Subjects were divided into three groups (N=20)
oGroup 1: 6 to 7 year olds (n=7)
oGroup 2: 8 to 9 year olds (n=5)
oGroup 3: 10 to 12 year olds (n=8)
The Test of Inferencing was modified based upon initial pilot data:
Responses that occurred 25% or more of the time during pilot administration were
added to the list of acceptable responses for that test item.
Questions missed 50% or more of the time were eliminated from raw score totals for
each subject. These questions will be modified in the final version of the test.
Results
Group 1
CA
6;2
6;8
6;10
7;7
7;7
7;8
7;11
Group 2
% accuracy
on Test of
Inferencing
CASL
Inferencing
Subtest
Standard Score
50
95.6
67.3
84.8
73.9
76
89.1
below norms
below norms
below norms
92
83
96
109
% accuracy
CA on Test of
Inferencing
8;6
8;10
8;11
9;1
9;3
95.6
91.3
91.3
97.8
86.9
Group 3
CASL
Inferencing
Subtest
Standard
Score
100
83
118
103
106
CA
10;0
10;3
10;4
10;8
11;2
12;3
12;8
12;9
% accuracy
on Test of
Inferencing
CASL
Inferencing
Subtest
Standard Score
78.2
86.9
95.6
91.3
95.6
86.9
100
91.3
96
90
106
87
128
99
101
62
Type
Acceptable
1. Location
library
Ashley had to be quiet as
she looked for a book to
check out. Where is
Ashley?
2. Agent
Tomorrow Charlie has to g
et his teeth checked. W
ho is Charlie going to se
e?
3. Time
Dad woke me up to look a
t the bright stars. When
did this happen?
4. Action
Sam pedaled quickly
down the sidewalk. What
is Sam doing?
5. Instrument Holly needed help with a
hard multiplication
problem. She typed in the
numbers and pushed
equal to find the answer.
What did she use?
6. Category
Sarah first put on her
pearl necklace and
bracelets. She then added
earrings and a ring. What
is Sarah putting on?
7. Object
Grandpa climbed up high
to clean the gutters. How
did he get so high?
8. CauseLisa got all of the words
right on her spelling test.
Effect
Why?
9. ProblemJulie needs to get
something out of a
Solution
cupboard that she can’t
reach. What should she
do?
10. Feelings- Ben’s mom raised her
voice when he didn’t
Attitude
share the crayons with his
sister. How does Ben’s
mom feel?
dentist,
dental
hygienist
Unacceptable
doctor
night, middle
of the night
riding a bike pedaling
calculator,
computer
math
jewelry
ladder
She studied, She’s smart
practiced,
cheated
get
get help, ask
something to parent
stand on, ask
someone
taller
mad, angry,
frustrated
Future Research
Do neurotypical 4-5 year olds perform significantly different than
other age groups previously piloted?
Do children with language impairment or autism spectrum
disorders have significantly different inferencing abilities than agematched neurotypical peers?
References
Botting, N., & Adams, C. (2005). Semantic and inferencing abilities in children with communication disorders. International
Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 40, 49–66.
Carrow-Woolfolk, E. (1999). Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language. Greenville, SC: Super Duper Publications.
Johnson, D. D., & von Hoff Johnson, B. (1986). Highlighting vocabulary in inferential comprehension. Journal of Reading, 29,
622-625.
Keenan, T., Ruffman, T., & Olson, D. R., (1994). When do children begin to understand logical inference as a source of
knowledge? Cognitive Development, 9, 331-353.
Letts, C. & Leinonen, E. (2001). Comprehension of inferential meaning in language-impaired and language normal children.
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 36, 307-328.
Norbury, C. F. & Bishop, D. V. M. (2002). Inferential processing and story recall in children with communication problems: A
comparison of specific language impairment, pragmatic language impairment and high-functioning autism. International
Journal of Language & Communication Disorders , 37(3), 227-251.
Richards, J. C. & Anderson, N. A. (2003). How do you know? A strategy to help emergent readers make inferences.
The Reading Teacher, 57, 290-293.
Sodian, B. & Wimmer, H. (1987). Children’s understanding of inference as a source of knowledge. Child Development, 58,
424-433.
Spector, C. C. (2006). Between the lines: Enhancing inferencing skills. Greenville, SC: Super Duper Publications.
Conclusions
Performance of neurotypical children on The Test of Inferencing varied based on age:
oThe three groups performed significantly different from one another [F( 1;10)=5.06;
p=.05].
oGroup 1 (6-7 yr. olds) performed significantly worse than Group 2 (8-9 yr. olds)
[t(10)=2.25; p=.05] and Group 3 (10-12 yr. olds) [t(13)=2.37; p=.03].
oGroup 2 (8-9 yr. olds) did not perform significantly worse than Group 3 (10-12 yr.
olds) [t(11)=0.54; p>.05].
Performance of neurotypical children on The Test of Inferencing varied based on type of
inference as follows:
oGroup 1 (6-7 yr. olds) performed significantly different on the various inference types
[F(9;60)=2.79; p=.008].
oGroup 2 (8-9 yr. olds) did not perform significantly different on the various inference
types [F(9;40)=0.87; p>.05].
oGroup 3 (10-12 yr. olds) performed significantly different on the various inference
types [F(9;70)=2.01; p=.05].
For all age groups:
oLocation inferences were significantly easier than agent inferences [t(19)=2.12;
p=.05]; category inferences [t(19)=2.48; p=.02]; and cause-effect inferences
[t(19)=3.84; p=.001].
oLocation inferences were similar in difficulty to time inferences [t(19)=1.71; p>.05];
action inferences [t(19)=1.68; p>.05]; instrument inferences [t(19)=1.0; p>.05];
object inferences [t(19)=.65; p>.05]; problem solving inferences [t(19)=.78; p>.05];
and feelings/attitudes inferences [t(19)=.22; p>.05].