Presentation Plus! Glencoe World History
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Introduction
How Do I Study Geography?
Globes and Maps
How Map Projections Work
Common Map Projections
Reading a Map
Understanding Latitude and Longitude
Types of Maps
Click on a hyperlink to view corresponding slides.
Introduction
The story of the world begins with geography–the
study of the earth in all of its variety. Geography
describes the earth’s land, water, and plant and
animal life. It is the study of places and the
complex relationships between people and their
environment. 
The resources in this handbook will help you get
the most out of your textbook–and provide you
with skills you will use for the rest of your life.
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Space Bar to display the information.
How Do I Study Geography?
To understand how our world is connected, some
geographers have broken down the study of
geography into five themes. The Five Themes of
Geography are (1) location, (2) place, (3) human/
environment interaction, (4) movement, and (5)
regions.
How Do I Study Geography?
Six Essential Elements
Recently, geographers have broken down the
study of geography into Six Essential Elements.
Being aware of these elements will help you better
understand and organize what you are learning
about geography.
How Do I Study Geography?
Element 1: The World in Spatial Terms
Geographers first take a look at where a place
is located. Location serves as a starting point
by defining where a place is. Knowing the location
of places helps you develop an awareness of
the world around you.
How Do I Study Geography?
Element 2: Places and Regions
Place has a special meaning in geography.
It means more than where a place is. It also
describes what a place is like. Physical
characteristics such as landforms, climate, and
plant or animal life help geographers distinguish
different kinds of places. Human characteristics,
including language and way of life, also describe
places. 
Geographers often group places or areas into
regions. Regions are united by one or more
common characteristics.
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How Do I Study Geography?
Element 3: Physical Systems
When studying places and regions, geographers
analyze how physical systems–such as
hurricanes, volcanoes, and glaciers–shape the
earth’s surface. As part of their study of physical
systems, geographers look at communities of
plants and animals that depend upon one another
and their surroundings for survival.
How Do I Study Geography?
Element 4: Human Systems
Geographers also examine human systems, or
how people have shaped our world. Geographers
look at how boundary lines are determined and
analyze why people settle in certain places and not
in others. A key theme in geography is the
continual movement of people, ideas, and goods.
How Do I Study Geography?
Element 5: Environment and Society
How does the relationship between people and
their natural surroundings influence the way
people live? Geographers study how people use
the environment and how their actions affect the
environment.
How Do I Study Geography?
Element 6: The Uses of Geography
How does a war in the Middle East affect the
economy of the United States? Knowing how to
use geography helps people understand the
relationships between people, places, and
environments over time. Learning how to study
geography also prepares you for life in our
modern society.
Globes and Maps
Photographs from space show Earth in its true
form–a great ball spinning around the Sun. The
most accurate way to depict the earth is a globe,
a spherical scale model of the earth. A globe gives
a true picture of the continents’ relative sizes and
the shapes of landmasses and bodies of water.
Globes are proportionally correct, accurately
representing distance and direction.
Globes and Maps
A map is a flat drawing of all or part of the earth’s
surface. Unlike globes, maps can show small
areas in great detail. People use maps to locate
places, plot routes, and judge distances. Maps
can also display useful information, such as
political boundaries, population densities, or even
voting returns.
Globes and Maps
From Globes to Maps
Maps, however, do have their limitations. As you
can imagine, drawing a round object on a flat
surface is very difficult. Think about the surface of
the earth as the peel of an orange. To flatten the
peel, you might have to cut it like the globe shown
on the following slide. Cartographers, or
mapmakers, use mathematical formulas to transfer
information from the three-dimensional globe to a
two-dimensional map. However, when the curves
of a globe become straight lines on a map,
distortion of size, shape, distance, or area occurs.
Globes and Maps
Great Circle Routes
A great circle is an imaginary line that follows the
curve of the earth. A line drawn along the Equator
is an example of a great circle. Traveling along a
great circle is called following a great circle route.
Airplane pilots use great circle routes because
they represent the shortest distances from one city
to the next.
Globes and Maps
Great Circle Routes
The idea of a great circle shows one important
difference between a globe and a map. Because
a globe is round, it accurately shows great circles.
On a flat map, however, the great circle route
between two points may not appear to be the
shortest distance. For example, on map A on page
5 of your textbook, the great circle distance (dotted
line) between Tokyo and Los Angeles appears to
be far longer than the true direction distance (solid
line). In fact, the great circle distance is 345 miles
(555 km) shorter, which is evident on map B on
page 5 of your textbook.
Globes and Maps
Geographic Information Systems
Technology has changed the way maps are made.
Most cartographers use software programs called
geographic information systems (GIS). A GIS
uses data from maps, satellite images, printed text,
and statistics. Cartographers can program the GIS
to produce the maps they need, and it allows them
to make changes quickly and easily.
How Map Projections Work
To create maps, cartographers project the
round earth onto a flat surface–making a map
projection. There are more than a hundred kinds
of map projections, each with some advantages
and some degrees of accuracy. The purpose of
the map usually dictates which projection is used.
Three of the basic categories of projections used
are shown on the following slides: planar,
cylindrical, and conic.
How Map Projections Work
Planar Projection
Planar projections show the earth centered in such
a way that a straight line going from the center to
any other point on the map represents the shortest
distance. Since they are most accurate at the
center, they are often used for maps of the Poles.
How Map Projections Work
Cylindrical Projection
Cylindrical projections are based on the
projection of the globe onto a cylinder. They are
most accurate near the Equator, but shapes and
distances are distorted near the poles.
How Map Projections Work
Conic Projection
Conic projections are made by placing a cone over
part of the globe. They are best suited for showing
east-west areas that are not too far from the
Equator. For these uses, a conic projection can
indicate distances and directions fairly accurately.
Common Map Projections
Four of the most popular map projections are
named for the cartographers who developed
them. These are the Winkel Tripel projection,
the Robinson projection, Goode’s Interrupted
Equal-Area projection, and the Mercator
projection. Remember, all map projections have
some degree of inaccuracy in distance, shape,
or size because the curved surface of the earth
cannot be shown accurately on a flat map. Every
map projection stretches or breaks the curved
surface of the earth in some way.
Common Map Projections
Winkel Tripel Projection
Most reference world maps use the Winkel Tripel
projection. Adopted by the National Geographic
Society in 1998 for use in most maps, this
projection provides a good balance between the
size and shape of land areas as they are shown
on the map. Even the polar areas are depicted
with little distortion of size and shape.
Common Map Projections
Robinson Projection
The Robinson projection has minor distortions.
The sizes and shapes near the eastern and
western edges of the map are accurate, and the
outlines of the continents appear much as they do
on the globe. However, the shapes of the polar
areas appear somewhat flat.
Common Map Projections
Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection
An interrupted projection looks something like a
globe that has been cut apart and laid flat. Goode’s
Interrupted Equal-Area projection shows the true
size and shape of the earth’s landmasses, but
distances are distorted.
Common Map Projections
Mercator Projection
The Mercator projection, once the most
commonly used projection, increasingly distorts
size and distance as it moves away from the
Equator. This makes areas such as Greenland
and Antarctica look much larger than they would
appear on a globe. However, Mercator projections
do accurately show true directions and the
shapes of landmasses, making these maps useful
for sea travel.
Reading a Map
Maps include several important tools to help you
interpret the information contained on a particular
map. Learning to use these map tools will help
you read the symbolic language of maps more
easily.
Cities and
Capitals
Relative
Location
Compass
Rose
Boundary
Lines
Key
Scale Bar
Reading a Map
Compass Rose
A compass rose is a marker that indicates
directions. The four cardinal directions–north,
south, east, and west–are usually indicated with
arrows or points of a star. Sometimes a compass
rose may point in only one direction because the
other directions can be determined in relation to
the given direction. The compass rose on the
map on the previous slide indicates all four
cardinal directions.
Reading a Map
Key
Cartographers use a variety of symbols to
represent map information. Because these
symbols are graphic and commonly used, most
maps can be read and understood by people
around the world. To be sure that the symbols are
clear, however, every map contains a key–a list
that explains what the symbols stand for. The key
on the previous map shows symbols used for a
battle map. It indicates troop movements, supply
lines, and U.S. bases.
Reading a Map
Cities and Capitals
Cities are symbolized by a solid circle. Sometimes
the relative sizes of cities are shown with circles of
different sizes. Capitals are represented by a star
within a circle.
Reading a Map
Relative Location
People use relative direction to indicate location.
You may be told, for example, to look for a street
that is “two blocks north” of another street. Relative
location is the location of one place in relation to
another place, while absolute location indicates the
exact position of a place on the earth’s surface. On
the previous map, the relative position of where the
Vietnam War took place is given in relation to the
rest of the world.
Reading a Map
Boundary Lines
On political maps of large areas, boundary lines
highlight the borders between different counties,
states, provinces, or countries.
Reading a Map
Scale Bar
Every map is a representation of a part of the
earth. The scale bar shows the relationship
between map measurements and actual distance.
Scale can be measured with a ruler to calculate
actual distances in standard or metric
measurements. On the previous map, threefourths inch represents 200 miles (322 km).
Understanding Latitude and Longitude
Lines on globes and maps provide information
that can help you easily locate places on the
earth. These lines–called latitude and longitude–
cross one another, forming a pattern called a grid
system.
Understanding Latitude and Longitude
Latitude
Lines of latitude, or parallels, circle the earth
parallel to the Equator and measure the distance
north or south of the Equator in degrees. The
Equator is at 0º latitude, while the Poles lie at
latitudes 90ºN (north) and 90ºS (south).
Understanding Latitude and Longitude
Longitude
Lines of longitude, or meridians, circle the earth
from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distances
east or west of the starting line, which is at 0º
longitude and is called the Prime Meridian.
The Prime Meridian runs through the Royal
Observatory in Greenwich, England.
Understanding Latitude and Longitude
Absolute Location
The grid system formed by lines of latitude and
longitude makes it possible to find the absolute
location of a place. Many places can be found
along a line of latitude, but only one place can be
found at the point where a certain line of latitude
crosses a certain line of longitude. By using
degrees and minutes (points between degrees),
people can pinpoint the precise spot where one
line of latitude crosses one line of longitude–an
absolute location.
Types of Maps
Maps are prepared for many uses. The information
depicted in the map depends on how the map will
be used. Learning to recognize a map’s purpose
will help you make the best use of its content.
Types of Maps
General-Purpose Maps
Maps that show a wide range of general
information about an area are called generalpurpose maps. Two of the most common generalpurpose maps are physical maps and political
maps.
Types of Maps
General-Purpose Maps
Physical maps show the location and the
topography, or shape, of the earth’s physical
features. They use colors or patterns to indicate
relief–the differences in elevation, or height, of
landforms.
Types of Maps
General-Purpose Maps
Political maps show the boundaries between
countries. Smaller internal divisions, such as
states or counties, may also be indicated by
different symbols. Political maps usually feature
capitals and other cities.
Types of Maps
Special-Purpose Maps
Special-purpose maps show information on
specific topics, such as climate, land use, or
vegetation. Human activities, such as exploration
routes, territorial expansion, or battle sites, also
appear on special-purpose maps. Colors and map
key symbols are especially important on this type
of map.
Types of Maps
LANDSAT Maps
LANDSAT maps are made from photographs by
camera-carrying LANDSAT satellites in space. The
cameras record millions of energy waves invisible
to the human eye. Computers then change this
information into pictures of the earth’s surface.
With LANDSAT images, scientists can study whole
mountain ranges, oceans, and geographic regions.
Changes to the earth’s environment can also be
tracked using satellite information.
LANDSAT image, Mt. St. Helens, Washington