Assessment of microbe contamination of shallow groundwater in selected urban and rural areas of Ugandas
J. Erumea*, M. Ocaidob
aDepartment of Veterinary Parasitology & Microbiology and bDepartment of Wildlife & Animal Resources Management, Makerere University, P. O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
ABSTRACT
RESULTS
Comparative assessment of microbe contamination of shallow groundwater was
done in urban (Kampala) and rural areas (Amuria and Kiboga district) of Uganda.
Total coliform and E. coli counts were determined using standard procedures.
Factors predisposing to water contamination and human infection with water-borne
pathogens were assessed using questionnaire interviews. Results revealed that all
total coliforms and E. coli counts exceeded WHO guidelines for drinking water and
rural areas had more contamination compared to urban. The mean number of total
coliforms was 46.7 ± 16.4, 3500 ± 1891 and 155 ± 72 cfu/100 ml, in Nakawa, Amuria
and Kiboga, respectively, with statistically significant difference in counts between
Nakawa and Amuria (p < 0.001) and between Nakawa and Kiboga (p < 0.05).
Similar trend was noted for E. coli counts with mean number being 12.2 ± 6.8, 1080
± 921 and 135 ± 45 cfu/100 ml, in Nakawa, Amuria and Kiboga, respectively.
Latrines being near water sources, sharing water with livestock and open defecation
were major risks for water contamination in Kampala, Kiboga and Amuria,
respectively. Amuria residents were more vulnerable to acquiring water borne
diseases due to lack of boiling drinking water. In conclusion, shallow groundwater
sources in rural areas of Uganda are more contaminated than those in urban and
factors predisposing to contamination differ by area therefore area-based tailored
solutions are needed in order to curtail water-borne disease outbreaks.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area. 3 sites; Site1: Nakawa (urban setting). Site
2: Kiboga (rural setting). Site 3: Amuria (rural setting).
Nakawa, Kampala City
Shallow ground water sources per site. Site 1 –
Nakawa: 10 protected springs and 8 unprotected springs.
Site 2 – Kiboga: 4 valley dams. Site 3 – Amuria: 3 shallow
wells (modified springs) & 1 protected spring
Methods.
1. A prospective study of safety and quality of the water
sources
Kiboga district, central Uganda
2) Visits were made to collect water samples at 3 month
intervals from May 2010 to April 2011
INTRODUCTION
100
Pit latrine present
Nakawa
80
Amuria
Kiboga
100
40
20
0
Protected
springs
Unprotected Shallow wells
springs
+ protected
springs
Nakawa
Amuria
Valley dams
80
80
60
Percentage
60
40
20
2. To determine the possible risk facors for the contamination of
the shallow ground water resources in the study areas
40
Kiboga
20
Chemical Filtration
None
treatment
Mode of water treament
Dinking of shallow groundwater
Risks
•All sites were at risk of contamination
•Nakawa _ pit latrines near water
•Amuria _ sharing water with livestock,
rain pollution and eroded concrete
slabs
•Kiboga _ sharing water with livestock
4) Laboratory Analysis
0
Nakawa
Mean Total
coliforms (cfu/100
ml)
Mean E. coli
(cfu/100 ml)
Nakawa 46.7±16.4
12.2±6.8
Amuria
3500±1891
1080±921
Kiboga
155±172
135±45
WHO acceptable levels in
drinking water
1. Underground shallow water sources were highly
contaminated with faecal origin bacteria.
2. Contamination was worse in rural areas as
compared to urban
3. Higher total coliform and E. coli counts were
correlated with season
Amuria
Total coliforms
Kiboga
E. coli
100
80
60
40
20
0
Samples were cultured on MacConkey for Total coliforms
(37oC) and Escherichia coli (45oC).
Colonies were confirmed as E. coli by IMViC test
Nakawa
Amuria
Kiboga
Proportion of contaminated water
sources
0
CONCLUSIONS
1.To determine the quality of shallow ground water in the study
areas
60
4) At each site;
i. Sanitary
inspection
for
potential
risks
of
contamination was done
ii. water samples were collected in sterile polypropylene
bottles and transported in a cold box with ice packs to
Laboratory for culture.
0
Boiling
Information is lacking about the safety of shallow ground
water used by urban and rural communities in Uganda.
OBJECTIVES
Pit latrine absent
100
Percentage
Reports show that more than 50% of rural residents and
slum dwellers in Uganda don’t enjoy piped water but
rather rely on shallow groundwater sources (UBOS,
2009). Although the shallow groundwater is considered
to be aesthetically acceptable for drinking and domestic
use, this water could be the source of disease agents
behind the rampant diarrheal outbreaks in the country.
3) Questionnaire survey was conducted
Percentage
In Uganda childhood diarrhea is a big challenge in the
poorest rural areas, particularly in Eastern and Northern
parts of the country, the regions having the highest
diarrhea prevalence rates among children, 8.9% and
10.7%, respectively (CEEPA Policy Brief, 2010).
Types of water used by households in different areas
Amuria district, Eastern Uganda
Percentage
There is a growing concern in Sub Saharan Africa that
poor access to safe water and sanitation are associated
with water borne diseases (CEEPA Policy Brief, 2010).
In East African countries in particular, these diseases
are the main cause of childhood illnesses and poor
health (Tumwine et al., 2002).
CONCLUSIONS
4. Contamination
risks varied by area, so area-based
tailored solutions are needed for preventing waterborne disease outbreaks.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the Canergie Corporation of New
York, through the Sub-Saharan Africa Water Resources Network
(SSAWRN)
REFERENCES
CEEPA Policy Brief. 2010. Battling water-borne dosease amongst
children: An assessment of policy options from Uganda. No.45, June
2010.
Tumwine JK,Thompson J, Katua-Katua M, Mujwajuzi M, Johnstone N,
Wood E, Porras I. 2002. Diarrhea and effects of different water sources,
sanitation and hygiene behavior in East Africa. Trop. Med. Int. Hlth. 7(9):
750-756.
Uganda Bureau of Statistics. 2009. Statistical Abstract.
World Health Organization. 1997. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality.
Ed.2. Vol. 3. Surveillance and control of Community supplies. Geneva.