Private Pilot Airplane
Crosswinds Flight School
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17 years of age
Able to read, write and converse in English
Obtain at least a 3rd class medical certificate
Receive and log ground training from an
authorized instructor or complete a home
study course
Pass a knowledge test scoring 70% or better
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Accumulate at least 40 hours of flight time
At least 20 hours from an authorized flight
instructor, including at least :
 3 hr. cross-country
 3 hr. at night including
o 1 cross-country flight over 100 NM total distance
o 10 takeoff and landings to a full stop
3 hr. instrument training
3 hr. in airplanes in preparation for the practical
test within 60 days prior
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10 hr. solo flight time
5 hr. of solo cross country flights
1 solo cross-county of at least 150 NM total
distance, with full-stop landings at a minimum of 3
points and with one segment consisting of at least
a 50 NM leg between the takeoff and landing
locations
3 solo takeoffs and landings to a full stop at an
airport with an operating control tower.
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Obtain a logbook sign-off by your CFI for:
Preflight preparation/procedures
Airport/seaport base operations
Takeoffs, landings, and go-arounds
Performance maneuvers
Ground reference maneuvers
Navigation
Slow flight and stalls
Basic instrument maneuvers
Emergency operations
Night operations
Post flight procedures
Successfully complete a practical flight test with FAA
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Aircraft Training
Airports
Aerodynamics
Airplane Stability, Load Factors, and Wake
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Dispatch procedures
Use of checklists
Certificates and Documents Location and Use
Aircraft Preflight
Aeronautical Decision Making and Judgment
Recovery Procedures
Engine Controls
Flight Controls
Emergency Equipment & survival gear
Aircraft Servicing
Fuel grades
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Scheduling
Aircraft key control procedures
Aircraft and airport security/access
procedures
Handling of aircraft and discrepancies found
during preflight including re-dispatch in a
new aircraft, if appropriate
The foundation of pilot standardization
and cockpit safety
Preflight
inspection
Before engine
start
Engine starting
Before taxi
Before takeoff
After takeoff
Cruise
Descent
Before landing
After landing
Engine
shutdown/
securing
emergency
A
airworthiness certificate
R
registration
R
radio license (not required in US)
 O operation limitations – may be
W
any combination of FAA –approved airplane
Flight manual and/or pilot’s operating
handbook, placards, instrument markings
weight and balance info
Follow
the checklist!
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1.
2.
3.
with time constraints
immediate action
Decisions
Aviate
Navigate
communicate
Decisions without time constraints
1. Aviate
2. Gather information
3. Consider alternative action
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Antiauthority - resents supervision, does not like
to be bound by schedules or habits, prefers to do
things when they feel ready
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Impulsivity - the inclination of an individual to
initiate behavior without adequate forethought as
to the consequences of their actions
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Invulnerability – resistant to harm and impact
Macho - trying to cover up their complex
Resignation – believes they can’t do it and gives in
Ground handling after flight – fueling
 Securing the aircraft
 Locking and securing keys
 Paperwork after flight
 Notification of aircraft discrepancies
 Return of aircraft to the way it was
found
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 Primer
– if engine is cold
 Master switch – battery/alternator
 Throttle – pump 3 times
 Ignition – turn to start
 Ailerons
 Rudder
 Elevator
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ELT – required
Water
Food
First aid kit
Aviation fire extinguisher
Cell phone
Flotation device – if over water
Emergency strobe/flash light – batteries
Blanket/hat/coat/gloves – cold weather gear
Money or credit card for fuel/oil
 Make sure you are able to self-service
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Low-lead 100- octane ( 100LL )
Dyed blue
Distinctive AVGAS odor
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Jet-A
Clear or straw colored
Kerosene scent and oily to touch
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Automotive gas –MOGAS (appropriate aircraft)
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Wind Direction Indicators
Airport, Runway, and Taxiway Signs
Airport, Runway, and Taxiway Markings
Airport, Runway, and Taxiway Lighting
Radio Calls and Checks
CTAF
Obtaining Airport Advisories
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Airport signs – color is key
Red- mandatory
Black/yellow letters – position
Yellow/black letters - directional
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Phonetic alphabet
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Use the 5 W’s
Who are you calling – “Crosskeys traffic”
Who are you – “Cessna 14H”
Where are you – “Departing/downwind/final/clear”
What your intentions are - “For 27/9”
Who are you calling – for clarification – “Crosskeys”
For airports without a control tower
May be a:
◦ UNICOM
◦ Multicom
◦ FSS
◦ Tower frequency (when closed) and is
identified in appropriate aeronautical
publications.
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UNICOM – a nongovernmental communications
facility which may provide information at certain
airports.
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Multicom – a mobile service not open to public
Correspondence used to provide communications
essential to conduct the activities being
performed by or directed from private aircraft.
1-800 WX-brief
FSS – Air traffic facilities which provide
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Pilot briefings
En route communication
VFR search and rescue services
Assist lost aircraft and aircraft in emergencies
Relay ATC clearances
Originate Notices to Airmen (NOTAMS)
Broadcast aviation wx and NAS (National air service)
information
Receive and process flight plans
Monitor NAVAIDs
In addition, at selected locations, FSSs provide
 En route Flight Advisory Service (Flight watch)
Flight Watch is the common name in the United States for
an Enroute Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) dedicated to
providing weather to and collecting it from pilots
operating at lower altitudes (mostly general aviation).
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Take weather observations
Issue airport advisories
Advise customs and immigrations of transboarder flights
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Local airport advisory is provided by flight
service stations or the military at airports not
serviced by an operating control tower
◦ Provides information to arriving and departing aircraft
concerning wind direction and speed, favored runway,
altimeter setting, pertinent know traffic, pertinent know
field conditions, airport taxi routes and traffic patters, and
authorized instrument approaches.
◦ This information is advisory only – not an ATC clearance
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Other airport advisories common at nontower airports may be obtained over the
CTAF from other aircraft in the pattern or
through the UNICOM.
Pilots landing at non-tower airports should
monitor the CTAF at least 10-20 miles out
to hear other traffic in the pattern.
If unable, request an airport advisory 5-10
miles out.
Check wind sock.
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Runway Incursions
Use of Aircraft Lighting during Taxi and
Traffic Pattern Operations
Collision avoidance
Scanning for Traffic
Traffic Pattern Operations
Practice Area Operations
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Never taxi onto any runway without first
looking for landing traffic.
Always monitor the CTAF and/or the
appropriate ATC frequencies while operating
on the surface of an airport.
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General – see and avoid
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In distress – has the right of way above all
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Converging – the aircraft to the right
or the least maneuverable (glider, balloon,
airship) or an aircraft towing another aircraft.
Head-on – each alters to the right
 Overtaking – the aircraft being overtaken, the
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overtaking aircraft alters course to the right.
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Landing –
aircraft on final, or the lower aircraft.
Engine running - beacon
 Taxiing – navigation, position, anti
collision
Crossing runway – all exterior lights
 Taxi to takeoff – all lights that silhouette
 Takeoff – landing light on when cleared
 Day or night – landing light should be left
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on until well clear of the pattern and turned
on well before reaching the pattern.
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Look outside the aircraft
Use the radio to announce intentions
Determine relative altitude of other aircrafts.
Take appropriate action – (right-of-way)
Multiple threats – climb, descend, turn
Collision course – appear to not be moving
High hazard areas – airports, VORs
Cockpit management – proper flight planning
ATC support – request flight following
Eyes can observe an approximate 200 degree
arc at a glance but only a small part of the
eye can focus in on a point.
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Use a series of short, regularly spaced eye
movements, 10 degrees at a time for 1
minute each.
Use the whole scanning area even behind
each wing
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Review practice area
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Clearing turns
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Look for traffic
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Maintain a safe altitude
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4 Forces of Flight
Angle of Attack
Airframe (Components)
Three Axes of Flight
Forces Acting on a Climbing Aircraft
Forces Acting on a Descending Aircraft
Forces Acting on a Turning Aircraft
Effects of Flaps
Critical Angle of Attack/Stalls
Spin Awareness
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Supporting force for flight in an atmosphere
Acts perpendicular to the relative wind
Generated through Bernoulli’s Principle and
Newton’s Law
As a fluid passes through a pipe that narrows
or widens, the velocity and pressure of the
fluid vary. As the pipe narrows, the fluid flows
more quickly. Surprisingly, Bernoulli's
Principle tells us that as the fluid flows more
quickly through the narrow sections, the
pressure actually decreases rather than
increases!
http://mitchellscience.com/bernoulli_principle
_animation
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Considered to act parallel and just about on
the longitudinal axis
Produced by movement of the air by propeller
or the expansion of air in a turbine
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Mass X acceleration (gravity)
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Always act toward the center on the earth
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Considered to act from the center of gravity
CG is the point on the aircraft, that if suspended it
would balance.
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drag
Two types- parasite & induced
Retarding force
Acts parallel to relative wind
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During straight & level
Lift = Weight
Thrust = Drag
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Steady state flight
Upward and downward forces are equal
Forward = retarding forces
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The acute angle between the chord line of the
airfoil and the direction of the relative wind
At angles less that the critical angle of attack,
an increase in the angle of attack will increase
lift provided that all other factors are the
same
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Fuselage
Monocoque – skin carries all of the stress
Truss – internal structure with non-load carrying skin
Semi-monocoque – inside formers & stringers
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Wings
Provides all the lift that supports aircraft in flight
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Empennage
Vertical stabilizer – directional balance
Rudder – direction of yaw
Horizontal stabilizer – longitudinal balance
Elevator – controls the pitch
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Rudder - yaw about the vertical axis
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Elevator – pitch about the lateral axis
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Ailerons – bank (roll) around the
longitudinal axis
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Trim tabs -for trimming and balancing aircraft
Trim tabs
Servo tabs
Balance tabs
Anti-servo tabs
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Spoilers & dive brakes – increase descent
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Wing flaps – increase lift and drag
without an increase in airspeed
Split
Slotted
Fowler
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Retractable vs. fixed
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Tricycle vs. conventional (tail wheel)
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Vy – best rate
 most altitude over time
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Vx – best angle
 most altitude over distance
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Cruise climb
Used for improved engine cooling and
visibility
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Steady state climb
Constant rate & airspeed climb
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P-factor –
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Torque reaction -
descending propeller blade produces
more lift and pulls aircraft to the left (yaw)
twisting on engine creates
roll and yaw
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Spiraling slip stream -
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Gyroscopic precession –
twisting air around
fuselage creates roll and yaw
gyroscope
propeller act as a
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Lift
May be the same as level
Component acts forward from vertical due to the
line of flight
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Thrust
Pilots prerogative
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Weight
Always acts toward the center of the earth
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Drag
May increase
Best glide -Most distance per unit of altitude
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Bank the aircraft in order to change the
direction of flight
Rudder yaws but does not create the unbalance of
forces needed to change direction
 Slip – tail inside
 Skid – tail outside
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Adverse yaw
Raised wing creates more lift and more drag.
Aircraft tries to turn opposite the turn.
 creates added drag
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Horizontal turns
Lift vector is tilted
 Creates an acceleration
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Shallow - 0 to 20 degrees of bank
Medium – 20 to 45 degree of bank
Steep – more than 45 degree of bank
Apply coordinated aileron and rudder initially
for the turn, then increase back pressure,
once the turn is established pressure on
controls can be relaxed
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The raised wing creates more lift than the
lowered wind. Especially in steeper turns the
lift on the raised wing will continue to
increase and will need aileron applied
opposite the turn in order to correct.
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Extending the flaps increases:
Wing camber
Wing area (some types)
Angle of attack of the wing
These changes increase lift and drag (induced and
parasite
Allows the pilot to make a steeper approach without
increasing airspeed
May provide increased lift required for certain
maneuvers
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An airplane will fly as long as the wing is
creating sufficient lift to counteract the load
imposed on it
The angle of attack at which a wing stalls
regardless of airspeed, flight attitude, or
weight is known as the critical angle of attack
The direct cause of every stall is an excessive angle
of attack
The smooth flow of air over the top of the wing is
disturbed at this critical angle of attack
The stalling speed of a particular airplane is not a
fixed value for all flight situations
A given airplane will always stall at the same angle
of attack regardless of airspeed, weight, load
factor, or density altitude
The angle is typically from 16-20 degrees,
depending on the airplane’s design
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The critical angle of attack can be exceeded
at any attitude or airspeed
At low airspeed, the angle of attack will tend to be
high
Abrupt control application and/or higher bank
angles will be involved with exceeding the critical
angle of attack at higher airspeeds or lower pitch
attitudes
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Recovery from a stall requires the pilot to
reduce the angle of attack to allow the
smooth air over the wing to begin again
Considerable altitude may be lost during recovery
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A spin may be defined as an aggravated stall
that results “autorotation” and the airplane
follows a downward corkscrew path
The “autorotation” results from an unequal
angle of attack on the airplane’s wings
The rising wing is less stalled
The descending wing has exceeded the critical
angle of attack and is more stalled
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Spins may occur during stalls with a sideslip
or yaw acting on the airplane at the time of
the stall
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Entry - stall
Incipient – lasts about 4 to 6 seconds
approximately 2 turns
Developed – airspeed vertical speed, and rate
of rotation are stabilized. Altitude loss
approximately 500 feet each 3 second turn
Recovery - wings regain lift recovery in about ½
to ¼ turn after anti-spin inputs are applied
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Reduce the throttle to idle
Position the ailerons to neutral
Apply full opposite rudder
Apply positive forward movement of the
elevator forward of neutral to break the stall
After spin rotation stops, neutralize the
rudder
Begin applying back pressure to raise the
nose to level flight
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Spin avoidance and recovery require positive
control applications
Intentional spins should only be practiced
within the limitations of a properly rigged
airplane with a qualified instructor at an
altitude allowing recovery prior to descent
below 3000ft AGL
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Static Stability (Positive/Negative)
Dynamic Stability (Positive/Negative)
Dihedral Effect
Ground Effect
Wing Tip Vortices
Wake Static Stability (Positive/Negative)
Dynamic Stability (Positive/Negative)
Dihedral Effect
Ground Effect
Wing Tip Vortices
Wake Turbulence and Avoidance
Load Factor and Gusts
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Stability - the inherent quality of an airplane
to correct for conditions that may disturb it
from equilibrium
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Controllability - the airplane’s capability
to respond to a pilot’ control inputs
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Maneuverability - the ability of the aircraft
to change direction about the three exes and
withstand the forces imposed by the
maneuver
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Positive – when moved out of equilibrium the
more likely it is to return to equilibrium
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Neutral – when moved out of equilibrium it
will tend to stay in the new position
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Negative – when moved out of equilibrium the
more likely it is to continue in the new direction
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In inherently stable aircraft returns to it’s
original position after being disturbed
The location of the center of gravity (CG)
determines the longitudinal stability
Too much stability is detrimental to
maneuverability
Too little stability can be detrimental to
controllability
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Stability - the inherent quality of an airplane
to correct for conditions that may disturb it
from equilibrium
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Controllability - the airplane’s capability
to respond to a pilot’ control inputs
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Maneuverability - the ability of the aircraft
to change direction about the three exes and
withstand the forces imposed by the
maneuver
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The result over time when reacting to a
disturbance from equilibrium
Dynamic stability requires positive static
stability as the initial reaction
An aircraft with positive dynamic stability will tend
to return to equilibrium through smaller and
smaller oscillations
An aircraft with neutral dynamic stability will tend
to continue oscillation with the same magnitude for
each oscillation
An aircraft with negative dynamic stability will
continue oscillating with the magnitude of each
oscillation increasing
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Dihedral is the angle at which the wings are
slanted upward from the root to the tip
Dihedral’s stabilizing effect is the result of a
slight sideslip which occurs when one wing is
forced down
The sideslip creates a difference between the angle
of attack on the upper and lower wings with the
lower wing having a greater angle of attack
(creating more lift) and raises the lowered wing
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By over-controlling/correcting the aircraft the
pilot disturbs the inherent stability creating
oscillations that increase in magnitude until
the aircraft become impossible to control
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The condition of improved performance
encountered when the aircraft is near the
ground (approximately a wing span)
The ground changes the airflow around the wing
and creates a cushion of air
 This reduces the upwash, downwash, and
wingtip vortices
 Results in a reduction of induced drag
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Good stuff
Allows the pilot to reduce wear and tear on the
aircraft and increase acceleration when operating
from a soft-field
May be utilized to soften a landing
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Bad stuff
May allow the aircraft to takeoff before the aircraft
is ready to continue flying which can result in
settling
May cause excessive float on landing
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Strongest wake
Heavy (larger AOA)
Clean (no changes in the wing)
Slow (larger AOA)
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Jet blast
Exhaust from a jet can flip a light aircraft
Stay back 500 ft.
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Wake turbulence avoidance in flight
Avoid 5+ miles behind the aircraft
Avoid 1,000ft below the aircraft
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Wake turbulence avoidance landing
Approach above the larger aircraft’s path
Touchdown beyond the larger aircraft’s touchdown
point
Land prior to the larger aircraft’s rotation point
Be cautious of crosswinds that can make them drift
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Wake turbulence avoidance departing
Rotate prior to and climb above the flight path
Wait 2-3 minutes if departing for dissipation
A load is a force which is supported by the
wings of the aircraft
the load in straight-and-level unaccelerated flight is
the weight of the aircraft and its contents (1 G)
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A load factor is a ratio of the total load
supported by the wings to the actual weight
of the aircraft and its contents
Also referred to as G’s (gravities)
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Climbing or turning will increase the G load
The load factor in turning flight is determined by
the bank angle
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In order to maintain level flight during a turn,
the wings must produce enough lift to
support the weight of the aircraft multiplied
by the load factor
The increased angle of attack required to
produce the extra lift at any given bank angle
will increase the stall speed of the aircraft
(multiply the stall speed by the square root of the
load factor to determine the higher stall speed)
Designed to handle without breaking apart
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Normal = +2.5 to +3.8/-1.0 to -1.52
(weight dependent)
Utility = +4.4/-1.76
Acrobatic = +6.0/-3.0
Transport = +2.5 to +3.8/-1.0
(weight dependent)
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Va – the maximum speed that the aircraft will
stall before a damaging load factor results
or
the maximum speed at which full of
abrupt control movements may be used
without overstressing the aircraft
Va changes with the weight of the aircraft
Va is typically published for max gross weight
(at weights less than max Va is lower)
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Vertical air currents or gusts may impose an
increased load factor on an airplane
These gusts are felt by the pilot and passengers as
turbulence
The aircraft’s speed must be kept below Vno
(normal operating range) in any turbulence to
prevent damage
It should be kept below Va in severe of greater
turbulence to allow an additional safety factor