Plant Embryo Development Establishes a Basic Body Plan In plants, 3D shape and form arise by regulating the amount and pattern of cell division As plant development proceeds, cells with multiple potentials are mainly restricted to meristem regions Meristem – tissue in all plants consisting of undifferentiated cells Many meristems have been established by the time embryogenesis ends and the seed becomes dormant Apical meristems establish the root shoot axis 3 basic tissue systems are established: dermal, ground, and vascular While the embryo is developing, a food supply that will support the embryo during germination is established, and ovule tissue differentiates to form a hard, protective covering around the embryo Seed enters dormant phase, signaling the end of embryogenesis The 1st division of the zygote in a flowering plant generates cells with 2 different fates: Daughter cell is small with dense cytoplasm and becomes an embryo Daughter cell is larger, forms elongated structure called a suspensor – links the embryo to the nutrient tissue of the seed Investigating mechanisms for establishing asymmetry in plant embryo development is difficult. One approach has been to use fucus as a model system Genetic approaches make it possible to explore asymmetric development in angiosperms and to study mutants 3 tissues differentiate while the plant embryo is still in the globular stage (b) Dermal tissue Produces cells that protect the plant from desiccation Formed from photoderm Ground tissue Function in food and water storage Formed from a ground meristem Vascular tissue Responsible for water and nutrient transport Formed from procambium Root-shoot axis is established during the globular stage Both the shoot and the root meristems are apical meristems but their formation is controlled independently Globular stage gives rise to a heart-shaped embryo with 2 bulges – dicots and monocots These bulges are cotyledons Produced by embryonic cells Process is called morphogenesis The position of the cell plate determines the direction of division Microtubules guide cellulose deposition as the cell wall forms around the outside of a new cell Determines the cell’s final shape Throughout embryogenesis, starch, lipids, and proteins are produced The sporophyte transfers nutrient via the suspensor in angiosperms Seeds have stored nutrients to aid in germination until the growing sporophyte can photosynthesize The seed protects the dormant embryo form water loss Development of the embryo is stopped soon after the meristems and cotyledons differentiate The integuments (outer cell layers of the ovule) develop into a seed coat which ecloses the seed with its dormant embryo and stored food Seeds are important adaptively in 4 ways: Seeds maintain dormancy under unfavorable conditions and postpone development until better conditions arise Seeds afford maximum protection to the young plant at its most vulnerable stage of development Seeds contain stored food that permits a young plant to develop before photosynthetic activity begins Seeds are adapted for dispersal, facilitating the migration of plant genotypes into new habitats Fruit formation enhances the dispersal of seeds Fruits that contain seeds are defined as mature ovaries Fruits form in many ways and exhibit a wide array of adaptations for dispersal 3 layers of ovary wall can have distinct fates, which account for the diversity of fruit types Fruits contain 3 genotypes in one package Fruits exhibit a wide array of specialized dispersal methods Fruits with fleshy coverings normally are dispersed by birds or other vertebrates Fruits with hooked spines are often disseminated by mammals Other fruits such as maples have wings that aid in their distribution by the wind Coconuts and other beach plants are regularly spread throughout a region either by water or African swallow Germination initiates post-seed development Germination – the emergence of the radicle (first root) through the seed coat The sporophyte pushes through the seed coat, root grows down, shoot grows up The shoot becomes photosynthetic and the postembryonic phase of growth and development begins Germination begins when a seed absorbs water and its metabolism resumes Many seeds will not germinate unless they have been stratified – held for periods of time at low temperatures Germination can occur over a wide temperature range (5 to 30 degrees celcius) In some species, a significant fraction of a season’s seeds remain dormant Germination requires the utilization of metabolic reserves stored in the starch grains of amyloplasts (colorless plastids that store starch) and protein bodies Fats and oils produce glycerol and fatty acids which yield energy through cellular respiration Embryo produces gibberellic acid, a hormone, that signals the outer later of the endosperm called the aleurone to produce amylase Enzyme breaks down the endospermic starch into sugars Abscisic acid, another hormone, can inhibit starch breakdown Emergence of the embryonic root and shoot from the seed during germination varies widely In most plants, the root emerges before the shoot appears and anchors the young seedling in the soil