: Neolithic
Revolution
: End of the last “Ice Age”
People began to settle = Civilizations
developed- Major river valleys - Huang
He, the Indus, and the Nile civilizations
If You See: Brahma,
dharma, and Moksha
Think Of:
Hinduism
This is a picture of Hagia Sophia. If you were to
see a picture like this – think of the Byzantine
Empire &/or Russia (Cyrillic alphabet).
The economic wealth of Calicut, Mogadishu, and
Venice in the 13th century was primarily
dependent on their?
If you were to see a similar question like the one
above… you should automatically ponder what
do these three things have in common…
THINK! Well?
They are grand coastal cities: coastal locations.
Follow the same pattern for similar lining of questions… If there’s a
question asking what do these three/four things have in common,
find out what you know about at least ONE of them…. More times
than not, that will eventually lead you to the correct answer…
please trust me on this.
If you see… Black Death
You should automatically think of:
- Mass deaths  A shortage of workers developed.
-This originated from European trading and traveling to the
east (China), where the Bubonic Plaque/Black Death began.
- While the plague led to the Death of over 1/3 of
Europe’s population, the Crusades, the trade and travel
that stemmed from it played a huge role in ending
feudalism (land based economic system).
If you see… The Prince,
Niccolò Machiavelli
Think of the:
- The rise of prince’s/king’s political power.
- Wrote his work during the Renaissance era.
- Two most famous quotes:
+ “It’s better to be feared than to be loved.”
+ “The ends justifies the means.”
Why were Peter I (the Great)
Catherine I (the Great) similar
Think in the sense that both:
- Pursued a policy of westernization and expansion.
- Sought after warm water ports (Since most of Russia
is oft-cold/frozen, this was huge – for trade & trade =
“life blood” of a given nation.
- Promoted the arts and sciences – anything that
advance their nation.
What were the primary causes
of WWI/The Great War?
Think of: M.A.I.N. Causes –
 Militarism
 Alliances
 Imperialism
 Nationalism
If you see The Real “Boxers”… think of: spheres of influence
established in China by foreigners (Always carefully examine the
information
provided).
Just remember: if you see the Boxer Rebellion, think of Chinese
citizens being anti-western/anti-foreigner… China for Chinese.
The leaders in this 1936 cartoon are depicted as “spineless”
because they? Wished to follow the policy of appeasement =
avoid war at all cost.
Based on the information in this chart, which situation
gave rise to Nazi power in Germany?
If you see: Which factor aided Russian troops in defeating
Napoleon’s armies and Soviet forces in defeating
Hitler’s armies?
- Severe winters
+ tundra = frozen desert
- Scorched Earth Policy
- Though terrain/geography
Based on this cartoon by Leslie Gilbert Illingworth, what role did
“Old Man Winter” play in the defense of Russia? (always pay close
attention to political cartoon – Review everything).
Old Man Winter
What is the best title for this map?
Think of Japanese imperialism (for resources) – The Rape of
Nanking (Human Rights violations)
What does this painting illustrates? What’s the message?
Think of a land based economic/political system:
Feudalism… Think of the Middle Ages/Medieval Era.
If you see… One way in which Toussaint
L’Ouverture, Kwame Nkrumah, and Ho
Chi Minh are similar is that each leader
Think of:
- Each fought to free their his country from
European control.
- Nationalism/Self-determination.
If you see The Nuremberg
laws…
Think of:
- anti-Semitic (Against Jews) laws of 20th-
century Germany.
- Rise of Nazism & Adolf Hitler.
- These laws used Jews as scapegoats.
If you see… Karl Marx
Think of:
- Father of Communism
- He was born in Germany, but conducted most of his writing in
England.
- Spoke about a Communist Revolution: Bourgeoisie
(Rich/Upper Middle Classes) vs. Proletariat (Working
Class/Poor)
- Conducted his work in the era of the industrial Revolution,
spoke out against mistreatment of workers – underpaid/
What’s the main point of this cartoon? While it’s not visible here, the
political cartoon shows that the car’s bumper is titled, “corn powered”
and
the
license
plate
reads
“bio-fuel.”
Through this cartoon, we learn that: using corn to make bio-fuels for
automobiles will increase food shortages = increases famine/mass
deaths.
If You See: Great Wall of
China
 Think Of: Protect the Chinese
from the nomadic tribes of
northern and central Asia = the
huns, tartars, Mongols, etc.
: Renaissance
Rebirth of the Classical Age –
time of the ancient Greeks & Romans.
 Bring back the arts, sciences, literature,
etc = Their Golden Age
 End of the Middle/ Dark Ages =
Death/Dangerous.
The Phoenicians
- “Carriers of civilization” = Cultural
diffusion.
- Traded goods and spread ideas
throughout the Mediterranean
region = sea people.
- Phonics = alphabet
Carefully drawn calligraphy, Zen
gardens, and the tea ceremony
Think Of: Early Japanese
Culture/way of life.
Focused on
traditionalism/impact of
isolation, fear of
Europe/foreign
interaction.
If You See: Mansa Musa
(originated from Mali)
 Think Of: Famous Hajj
(pilgrimage) to Mecca = holy
land of all Muslims.
 Trade and travel – crossing the
Sahara/N. Africa.
 Connected to Salt for Gold
Trade.
If You See: Reformation
 Think Of: Martin Luther & his 95 Theses
 Printing Press – helped spread the word
 Weakened the Catholic Church W/the
start of several other Christian Churches.
 Protesting the ills/wrongs of Catholic
church.
If You See: Crusades
 Think Of: Fight for the Holy Land
(Palestine/M.E) – Christians vs.
Muslims.
 Cultural Diffusion – interest in each
others’ cultures.
 European interest in the Asian
goods/products.
Encounter, Triangular Trade, Middle Passage, Encomienda,
Columbian
Exchange,
etc.
Think Of: Slavery,
Colonialism/Imperialism,
exploitation, mass death of
the natives and African
populations/lands in the socalled, “New World.”
Zheng He (Chinese) & Ibn
Battuta (N. Africa/Muslim)
Think Of: Trading/Traveling
to many distance lands
Cultural diffusion
Advanced navigation
systems.
Scientific Revolution or
the Enlightenment
 Think Of: Emphasis on the value
of human reasoning
 Break from the Middle/Dark
Ages
 Using science and logic to reach
at everyday decisions.
If You See: Simón Bolívar
 Think Of: The George
Washington of Latin America
 The Great Liberator –
working/fighting for selfrule/independence from
European
colonialism/imperialism.
If You See: Industrial
Revolution
 Think Of: Factory production
 Exploitation of workers – women &
children
 Vast pollution
 Desire/need for an abundance of
nat. resources.
If You See: Meiji
Restoration
 Think Of:
Modernization/Industrialization
of Japan
 Last Samurai – remember that
movie.
 Break from the
past/traditionalism – Tokugawa
Meiji
Restoration
=
Westernization/Modernization of Japan
If You See: 1938 Munich
Conference
 Appeasement – one of the major
causes of WWII.
 Helped to make Germany/Nazis
stronger
 Impact of the Great Depression.
Mikhail Gorbachev, Glassnost, and
Perestroika
 Think Of: End of the Cold War –
Early 1990s.
 New freedoms – more
democratic
 Moving away from Communism.
If You See: Bolshevik
Revolution
 Think Of: Birth of
Communism/Reds in Russia =
U.S.S.R.
 Got rid of all
western/capitalist/democratic
policies
 The rise of Lenin (N.E.P) and
If You See: Confucianism
 Think Of: Filial Piety
 Kids must honor/respect
parents, elders, the dead, and
gov’t authority.
 The 5 relationships & Social
Order
If You See: The Treaty of
Versailles
Think Of: The “War Guilt
Clause” – Blame Germany for
causing the WWI – and
played a major role in A.
Hitler and Nazis’ rise to
power.
Reparations
Geographic characteristic shared by
both
Greece
and
Japan
 Think Of: Archipelago – group, row,
or chain of island
 Irregular coastline = perfect for
shipping/trading
 Lacked arable land & natural
resources – Conquest of other lands
for what was lacking.
Martin Luther (95 Theses), John Calvin (new
bible), and Henry VIII (6 wives/new religion =
Anglicanism)
 Think Of: Protestant
Reformation throughout Europe
 Weakened the power/authority
of the Catholic church
 Creation of several different
Christian sects.
: Marco Polo
: Interest in Asian cultures
increased
 Later lead to
colonialism/imperialism of Asia =
resources, labor force, and
rich/strategic land.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
1994 or the European Union (EU) post WWII
 Think Of: Trade unions
 Interdependence – working together for
economic and political unity - reduce trade
barriers between member nations
 Does away with many trade obstacles, i.e.
tariffs.
Hungarian Revolution in 1956 and
the Tiananmen Square
demonstrations in 1989?
 Think Of: Repressive action was
taken to end both protests.
 Students/citizens protesting against
Communist gov’ts
stronghold/dictatorial rule.
 Wanting more freedoms – western
style of gov’t.
If You See: Laissez- faire
economics
 Free Markets/trade
 Capitalism
 Little to no gov’t interaction in business
– May the “best” win.
 America and Western/democratic
nations.
If You See: Human Rights
Violations
 Jews – Holocaust/WWII and throughout history
 Cambodians – Genocide of over 2 million people at the
hands of Pol Pot.
 Rwanda (1994) Hutus killed approximately 1 million
Tutsi, while the U.S./U.N. absolutely nothing.
 Nanking – Genocide and Gendercide by the Japanese.
 Armenians – Genocide by the Turks
 Iraq – Kurds were killed in great numbers by S.
Hussein
If You See:
The fight in the Middle
East for the Holy
land/Palestine = Muslims
vs. Jews. Non-stop blood
baths year after after.
If You See: Silk Roads
Think Of:
- Trade & Travel: Europe/Middle
East to China/Asia (vice versa):
Exchange of goods/products.
- Cultural Diffusion/New ideas.
Think Of:
 European: Spanish & Portuguese rule
 Colonialism in the Americas/Latin America
 Who’s at the top? Peninsulares = Europeans
from the Iberian Peninsula = Portugal & Spain.
 Who’s at the bottom? Africans/Natives =
slaves
If You See: Zionism
 Homeland – for whom? The Jews.
 Connected to the Balfour Declaration =
agreement with the British gov’t for a
homeland in Palestine.
 Key in the creation of Israel.
 If you want to understand the conflict in the
Middle East, one needs to understand Zionism.
If You See: Karl Marx
 A German political Philosopher – Spent most of his
adult life in England; enjoyed more political freedoms
there.
 Wrote the Communist Manifesto alongside Frederick
Engels
 “Father” of modern Communism
 Predicted a revolution of the proletariats vs.
bourgeoisie would occur first in industrial Europe
 Wrote during the Industrial Rev. = Mid. 1800s.
If You See: Chernobyl
 Think Of: Major “man-made”
disaster = destruction/mass deaths.
 Nuclear explosion
 Connect it to modern-day Japan –
think back to what happened a few
months ago.
If You See: Iran’s Ayatollah
Khomeini and Afghanistan’s
Taliban
 Established an
Islamic/theocratic state
 Strict laws/customs.
 Anti-west/democracy
 Persepolis – You guys read it with
Miyo – Hip, Hip Hooray for Miyo!
Reign of Terror during the
French Revolution
 Mass deaths
 Used violent methods to eliminate
their opponents
 One year of chopping people’s
heads off with a guillotine. I.e.,
Marie Antoinette & Louis XVI
 Process of German
unification/Nationalism
 Bismarck was the “orchestrator”
 “Blood & Iron” – his famous
speech
The Panama Canal and
Suez Canal
Shortened shipping routes
between major bodies of
water
Helped trade and travel
Save $$ & time.
Chronological Order
 Roman Empire → Middle Ages →
Crusades
 Renaissance →European
exploration of the Americas →
Reformation
 World War I →Treaty of Versailles →
World War II →Korean War
Constantinople
& Byzantine Empire
Location made it the
crossroads of Europe and Asia =
Bosporus Sea – Helped to spread
cultural diffusion.
 Part of Eastern Rome – South of
Russia.
 Spread Christianity – Eastern
Orthodoxy
Sepoy (Indian) or Boxer
(Chinese)Rebellions
: British/Western
imperialism of Asia. The natives
attempted to end the ruled, but
failed in their attempts and only
made matters worst.
Birth of the Industrial
Revolution
Industrial Era
: John Locke
Protect the
natural rights of
individuals. Speak about
freedoms. Gov’t for and by
the people.
: Triple Alliance & the
Triple Entente
One of the major
causes of Great War/WWI.
Helped to increased tensions
between European countries.
Berlin
Conference
Conquest and division of the
so-called, “Dark Continent” = Africa at
the hands of Europeans. When?
Industrial Rev. 1800s
 Imperialism/colonialism – all in the
name of resources, labor force and land
 White Man’s Burden
 Stronger groups have the right
to rule and control weaker
groups
 Applying Charles Darwin’s
theory of evolution to everyday
life/society.
Major dispute
between India and
Pakistan
Muslims vs. Hindus
India vs. Pakistan – Nuclear threats against
one another
Augusto Pinochet, Saddam
Hussein, and Slobodan
Milosevic
Oppressive regimes
Autocratic rule
Mass
deaths/purges/ethnic
violence = genocide
Human Rights Violations
Toussaint L’Ouverture
 Nationalism/Freedom from the
French
 The great Haitian liberator
 Helped Haiti gained its
independence
 Haiti became the first “Black” nation
in the western hemisphere.
F. W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela received the
Nobel Peace Prize for their work to end the
- Discriminatory policy of apartheid
- Fought for more democratic form of government in S. Africa.
- Shortly after this, Mandela became the first black South African
president.
Mao Zedong
- Introduced Communism to Chinese.
- Helped write the “Little Red Book” = symbol
of Comminism in China.
- He was the Chinese leader most closely
associated with leading the Great Leap
Forward and the Cultural Revolution.
If you see…Deng Xiaoping… Think of: Modernization,
Westernization, growth of Capitalism within China…
The cartoon focuses on the fact that economic
freedom in China has not led to political reforms &
freedom.
The statements below refer to changes i
Afghanistan
in
the
1990’
• The Taliban controls the governmen
• Women must clothe themselves from head to to
•
Men
are
required
to
grow
beard
• Girls are not allowed to attend schoo
These
Islamic
changes
in
Afghanistan
have
resulte
fundamentalism
The Columbian Exchange = New World (The Americas)
meets Old World (Europe). Focuses on Cultural diffusion.
The cartoon shows the League of Nations hopes
to use boycotts to end war = the league is weak
 one of the primary causes of WWII.
 Rejection of the czarist system in Russia/U.S.S.R.
 Rejection of Christianity/Religion & Capitalism
 Impact of the Bolshevik Revolution = Intro to Communism
Agricultural advancement
of the Incas
 Settled around Peru = mountainous area
 Not good for crops/cultivation = limited space/arable
 When you think of the Incas, think of Manhattan. Very
small island, but millions reside there and many more
visit/conduct business there.
 How? Tall buildings = do a lot with very little
 For the Incas =Terracing of mountains for farming
Louis XIV and Peter the
Great
 Absolute ruler = The monarch is all
mighty/all powerful
 Power corrupts… absolute power corrupts
absolutely.
 Used religion = Divine Right of Kings
 “Do not question government authority” =
Autocratic gov’t
 Centralized gov’t
Pax Romana & Pax
Mongolia
Pax = means peace in Latin
 Political/social stability
Often leads to a Golden Age =
the best of times.
Mauryan/Gupta Empires
 Ancient Indian Empires
 Development of math and
science. Use of Sanskrit
language and development of
the concept of zero
 The Pillars of Emperor Asoka of
the Mauryan Empire
Water = life
 All early civilizations developed
close to/around major river
systems/valleys/waterways.
 Egypt = The Nile, Mesopotamia
= Euphrates & Tigris, China =
Huang/Yellow River, India=
Indus & Ganges Rivers
Byzantine (Eastern Rome)
Introduced the Cyrillic
alphabet, Orthodox
Christianity, and domed
architecture to Russian
culture
Hagia Sophia = Great temple
Golden Age in Spain
Cervantes’ literary
classic Don Quixote, the
rule of Isabella and
Ferdinand, and the art
of El Greco
Russia
 Frigid region
 Seeking access to warm water ports.
 Largest landmass in the world
 Most of it barren/waste land
 Tundra = frozen desert
Seventeenth-century scholars
Galileo Galilei and René
Descartes
 Contradicted traditional medieval
European beliefs
 Went against the teachings of the
Bible/church
 Fell into lots of trouble with traditional
authorities
 Used scientific/enlightened
thinking/logic/methods to come to a
“The powder keg of Europe”
prior to World War I
 The Balkans Peninsula – west of Italy. Find
Italy on a map (the old lady’s boot) and then
look east for a peninsula (body of water on
three sides of the land/region).
 One of the major causes of the Great
War/WWI.
 Too Many: cultures/religions, races, etc., =
constant
fight
for
nationalism/selfdetermination.
Causes of WWII
Masters, apprentices, and
journeymen
 Guild system of Europe in the Middle
Ages
 Form of a union
 Training people to be professionals in a
time where schools/organized
education was all but none existent.
Shows the importance of
Constantinople
Twelve Tables
 Ancient Roman Laws & Customs
 Helped to govern the citizens of
Rome.
Five Year Plan
Joseph Stalin’s plan for
Russia’s economic growth.
 All but the first one failed.
 Led to mass starvation – famine = mass
deaths.
 Focused on economic progress/growth
(especially in terms of industry).
Mohandas
Gandhi
India’s leader in the movement
for independence from Great Britain
 Method: Civil Disobedience – nonviolence.
 British trained lawyer – he was brilliant.
 Wanted India to remain united as one
nation where Hindus & Muslims worked
together as one.
Civil disobedience: Boycott all
British Products
The United
Nations
Created after WWII.
 Resolve conflicts between nations
peacefully.
 Prevent another World War or
another major conflict. But what
happened to: Rwanda? Vietnam?
Relates to the failures/ineffectiveness of the
U.N. since its creation in stopping
Genocide/Human Rights Violations.
Think in terms of:
- Mali & Songhai
(Northwest Africa)
- Mansa Musa of Mali
-
Think of: The Scientific
Revolution
Think of:
- Spanish rule in Latin America
- Enslavement of the nations
- European (Spanish) conquest
of the so-called “New World”.
One similarity in the actions of Benito
Mussolini and Saddam Hussein (and similar
dictatorships/totalitarian
forms
of
governments):
Think of:
- Denied individual rights – illtreatment of citizens.
- Police states = “Big Brother”
- Dictatorship
Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Establish production quotas to
control the price of oil.
 Several oil producing nations united to
control the distribution of oil production
across the globe.
Korean or
Vietnam Wars
Impact of the Cold War.
 Proxy warfare
 Post- WWII – 1950s – 70s.
Truman
Doctrine or Marshall Plan
Working to prevent
the so-called, “Domino Effect.”
 Strengthen the alliances that
had won the war
 Containment policies
Fidel Castro in Cuba & the
Sandinistas in Nicaragua
Communism/followed
Marxist principles in Latin
American nations
throughout the Cold War.
World War II left many European
nations weak and vulnerable
Major turning point–
why/how? Many African and
Asian colonies united
(nationalism) in order to fight
for their independence.
 Many gained independence
during the 1950s – 70s.
Great Leap Forward & Four
Modernizations (China)
Increase
farm & factory
output.
Growth of industry
Green
Revolution
Green = increase plants/food/production using new
methodologies, technologies, science, farming, etc. in poor
nations/regions across the globe.
 Helped to increase agricultural
technological advancements.
production
based
on
 Was intended on curtailing/slowing down the growth of
famine/world hunger, etc.
 In many ways, one can easily argue that while the scientists
meant well, long term, this “revolution” created more problems
than it did indeed solve. Today, the so-called Green Revolution
has helped to create monstrosities like G.M. or Genetically
Modified food, which studies have shown have led to health
problems, etc. A good documentary to watch on said subject is,
Food, Inc.
Impact of the Green
Revolution
Magna Carta, English of
Rights, Glorious Revolution, Habeus
Corpus, Petition of Rights, etc. (all
connected to England/Britain)
Limited the power of the
monarchy
 More power to Parliament/the people =
more democratic form of government.
Away from absolute rule.
The purpose of both the Truman
Doctrine and the Marshall Plan was
to
Think of:
- Think of post-WWII era – war torn Europe.
- This was the focus on the US’ new foreign policy of
Containment: Prevent the spread of communism.
- Cold War Era: Capitalism vs. Communism.
- The U.S doled out (gave) several BILLION $$/aid to various
European nations in the hope of stopping the spread of
Communism.
If you see the term, Imperialism
Think of:
• Treaty of Nanjing gives control of Hong Kong to Great Britain.
 European conquest of Africa, Asia, & Latin America for
Resources to feed the machine – The Industrial Revolution.
- The White Man’s Burden
- The 3Cs - Spread of Christianity, Commerce and Conquest.
• French government sets up a protectorate in Cambodia.
• Italian forces occupy Ethiopia.
If you see… Maximilien Robespierre
and the Jacobins
Think of:
- The French Revolution
- Instituting the Reign of Terror= mass
killing of well over 10,000 people.
- The Guillotine.
If you see… Thomas Malthus, who was truly worried
about the rate of increase for human populations in
relation to the rate of increase for food production was
a problem. Malthus believed that
Think of:
- Population is growing too fast, and can’t keep up
with food production.
- Actually believed that wars, famines, natural
disasters, etc., are great things in slowing down the
rapid rate of population growth.
- Famine and war were natural checks on population
growth
If you see… Turkish leader
Kemal Atatürk
Think of:
- Modernization/Westernization of Turkey
- Secular (non-religious/non-Islamic) form of
gov’t.
- Post-WWI Era (1920s onward).
If you see… Russian Revolution (1917) aka Bolshevik
Revolution – Rise of Communism in Russia
Think of:
- An incompetent government
(led by the CZAR)
- Massacres on Bloody Sunday
- High costs of World War I
Countries in the dark color were once part of the
former republics of the Soviet Union
Think of… the Neolithic
Revolution
Think of… the history of Apartheid =
Extreme form of racism in South Africa.
Learn to read between
What’s
the
Think of: Oppression.
the lines:
answer?
Any question
dealing with “Golden Age”
Best of times for a
particular nation or empire.
Great economy, literary
period, arts, science/math,
etc.
Mercantilism
Economic system – age of
Exploration and beyond (W. European
nations).
 Colonies were created to benefit the
“Mother Country.” Colonies MUST
serve.
 All wealth and power for the “Mother
Country.”
Mercantilism
Pol Pot
The “Adolf Hitler” of
Cambodia (my words) = mass
deaths. Over 2 million were
brutally murdered.
 Often associated/connected to the
Vietnam War.
 1975-1979
Iron Curtain
(taken from a speech)
 Given by Winston Churchill – Prime Minister
of Great Britain
Cold War affairs
 A political/hypothetic wall created by the
Soviets to separate Europe post-WWII.
 Created a world of twos: Western
democracy/capitalist vs. Eastern/Communist.
If you see Stalin’s Five-Year
Plan
Think of:
- In the early 1930s, millions of
Ukrainians died as a result of
forced famine.
- Genocide/Ethnic purge (mass
killings)
Nelson
Mandela
Apartheid in S. Africa = ultra
racial discrimination/segregation at the
hand of the whites = Afrikaans (Dutch
settlers) and the British descendants.
 Arrested/then imprisoned for 27 years
 Worked to make S. Africa more
democratic
 First black president of S. Africa.
Apartheid
Post-Apartheid
Interpret the slide: Explains why France
failed to join the Allies in the Iraqi War
(2003)
The Mongols = conquered
vast lands
The Rome Empire
Interdependence
Interdependence
Proliferation of military weapons
could destroy the world.
Pre-Columbian Era = shows that the natives had
created magnificent things/structures (pyramids)
prior to Europeans “discovering” the region.
Cold War: NATO vs.
Warsaw
Pre-Age of Exploration: Pre-Columbus/Pre“Discovery” of the New World = Trade conducted
mainly around the Mediterranean Sea.
During the Age of Exploration = Europeans traveling across the
globe. Europeans were “hungry” for exotic things/goods. The
map also shows that the Chinese under the Ming Dynasty with
“Junk” ships trekked to different parts of the globe, too.
Large/Vast Empire - By the 1500s, the Ottoman
Empire controlled parts of the Middle East, North
Africa, and eastern Europe – Muslim/Islamic
Speaks volumes to Human Rights violations in China even in
today’s modern “free” world = The Chinese gov’t is infringing
on or abridging citizens’ civil liberties/basic human rights.
Impact of AIDS = The bleak
situations that plague subSaharan Africa
Monsoons = Wind (connects to trade, travel
& weather pattern throughout the Indian
Ocean)
1990s: Capitalist or Communist – Many
decisions to make = End of the Cold War/Fall
of the USSR (Early 1990s)
E.U.&
its
growth:
Think of economic unity/end trade barriers, etc.