• A regional dialect is the uniqueness of language in an area.
Ex: amer : will you do it?
scot : No, I’ll not do it.

1. International varieties
2. Intra-national or intra-continental varieties
3. Cross-continental variation: dialect chains
4. Social variation

1.International varieties:
Exp:
 Australians
 England
 New zealanders
: sole parents
: single parents
: solo parents

2. Intra-national or intra-continental varieties
• The high level of intra-national communication together with the relatively small populations, may have
East of New Zealand : sand

3. Cross-continental variation: dialect chains
• Two or more different languages or dialects merge one into others without a definiable boundary.
Exp: across the whole of europe
• One chain links all the dialect of german, dutch and flemish from switzerland thorough Austria andGermani, to the Netherland and Belgium, and there is another which links dialect of
Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, French and
Italian.

4. Social variation
Rp : a social accent the instantly recognisable accent often described as “typically British”.

The speech of people from different social, as well as regional, groups may differ in these ways.
Rp = a social accent
Standar english = a social dialect
 Vernicular languages contrast with standard languages
•Vernacular dialect contrast with standard dialect features

There are castes system ditermined by birth, and strict social rules govern the kind of behavior appropriate to each group. The rules cover such matters as kind of job people can have, who they can marry, how should they dress, what they should eat, how they should behave in a range of social situation.
Exp: Brahmin-non Brahmin
In say “milk”
Brahmin : Haalu
Non Brahmin : Aluu

• Sex has come to refer to categories distinguished by biological characteristics
• Gender is more appropriate for distinguishing people on the basis of their socio-cultural behavior, including speech.

GENDER-EXCLUSIVE SPEECH
DIFFERENCES:
HIGHLY STRUCTURED COMMUNITIES
Women and men do not speak in exactly the same way as each other in any community.
Traditional Japanese provides some clear examples.
Women’s form
Otosan
Onaka oishii taberu
Men’s form oyaji hara umai kuu
‘father’
‘stomach’
‘Delicious
‘eat’

GENDER-PREFERENTAL SPEECH FEATURES:
SOCIAL DIALECT RESEARCH
Social dialect research not surprisingly in western urban communities where women’s social roles overlap, the speech forms they use also overlap. In other words women and men do not use completely different forms.

Every social class men use more vernacular forms than women. In the lowest and the highest social groups, the women’s speech is closer to that of the men in the same group than to that women in other groups.

PLANATIONS OF WOMEN’S LINGUISTIC BEHAVOUR
The social status explanations
Some linguists have suggested that women use more standard speech forms than men because they are more status-conscious than men.
Woman’s role as guardian of society’s values
Women use more standard forms than men points to the way society tends to except ‘better’ behavior form women than for men.
Subordinate groups must be polite
People who are subordinate must be polite.
Vernacular forms express machismo
Men prefer vernacular from because they carry macho connotations of masculinity and toughness.

In assigning women in particular social class, researchers in early social dialect studies often used the woman’s husband’s occupation as their major criterion. Reflected their social background.

Men the other hand tend to be less responsive to the speech of others, and to their conversational need In such circumstances it is likely that the interview context. This too might account for men’s greater use of vernacular forms. In one of the earliest dialect surveys, the male interviewers asked different question of women and men in order to eicit a casual style of speech in which vernacular forms where more likely to occur.

Social dialect research has provided a great deal of information about pattern of pronunciation and grammar for different age groups. Many people social dialectologist have found that adolescent use particularly high frequencies of vernacular forms, especially if they are forms such as ain’t and multiple negation which people clearly recognize and identify as non-standard.

Age grading and language change
When a linguistic change is spreading through a community, there will be a regular increase or decrease in the use of the linguistic form over time. The for an innovative. A form on the increase-this will show up in a graph as a low use of the form by older people and a higher use among younger people.

THE LANGUAGE FORMS USED BY MEN
AND WOMEN DIFFERENT IN WESTERN
SOCIETIES
In western societies, women and men whose social roles are similar do not use forms that are completely different, but they use different quantities or frequencies of the same form. For example : women use more standard forms than men, and men use more vernacular forms than women / women use more ingforms than men and fewer ing-forms in words like coming or running. But in western communities, such differences are also found in the speech of different social classes, therefore the language of women in the lower and higher classes is more similar to that of men in the same group.

WOMEN'S LINGUISTIC BEHAVIOR (USING
FORMS THAT ARE MORE STANDARD)
1- Social status : women generally have a lower social status in society; therefore they try to acquire social status by using Standard
English.
2- Women's role as guardian of society's values : women use more standard forms than men, because society tends to expect 'better' behavior from women than from men (women serve as modals for their children's speech).

WOMEN'S LINGUISTIC BEHAVIOR (USING
FORMS THAT ARE MORE STANDARD)
3- Subordinate groups must be polite : women use more standard forms than men, because children and women are subordinate groups and they must avoid offending men, therefore they must speak carefully and politely.
4- Vernacular forms express machismo : men prefer vernacular forms because they carry macho connotations of masculinity and toughness.
Therefore women might not want to use such form, and use standard forms that associated with female values or femininity

WOMEN'S LINGUISTIC BEHAVIOR (USING
FORMS THAT ARE MORE STANDARD)
5- women's categories : Not all women marry men from the same social class, however it is perfectly possible for a women to be more educated then the man she marry, or even to have a more prestigious job than him.
6- The influence of the interviewer and the context : women tend to become more cooperative conversationalists than men.