Chapter one
Introducing Linguistics
What is Language ?
A definition:
Language is human speech; the ability to
communicate by this means; a system of
vocal sounds and combinations of such
sounds to which meaning is attributed, used
for the expression or communication of
thoughts and feelings; the written
representation of such a system. (Webster's
New World Dictionary)
Language is many things indeed
• A medium of communication
• A system of code
• A carrier of culture
• An instrument for thinking
• A glue of a community
• A social institution
Language is defined as:
A systm of arbitrary vocal symbols
used for human communication
Language is Symbolic
People use signs to communicate.
The working of signs is called by Saussure
"semiology", by Pierce "semiotics“.
Signs ---ubiquitous in human society. the
location of language in sign systems and the
relationship between an object and the sign that
stands for the object.
Language is Arbitrary
A. No logical connection between meaning and sounds. e.g. dog to
denote the animal dog, pig ,animal pig
e.g. skin not skni has nothing to do with the nature of skin
B. Implied meaning of Arbitrary
sign = a concept and a sound image combined
sign= a signified and a sinifier
a. The speaker of a language does not have the power to
change a sign in any way once it has become established in the
language community.
b. Arbitrary = the result of the need to express a wide range
of meanings speakers associate linguistic signs with things and
concepts, based on the convention established in the community.
Language is Primarily Vocal
All language use sounds. Writing is based
on speaking, to capture sounds and
meanings on paper.
The primary medium of language is sound.
Why?
Five reasons:
1. Children learn to speak before they learn to read and
write.
2. Children automatically learn a language as they grow
up.18 months -12 yrs : sufficient exposure to writing:
not natural, needs teachers
3. The spoken form came earlier than written form in
history.
4. writing is based on speech.
5. Spoken language is used more often than writing.
Implied Meaning :
1. Writing extends language beyond the limitations of
time and space.
2. Written language is more polished than speech, great
differences; e.g. classical Latin & language used in
Roman Empire.
Language is Human Specific
Human language is different from animal communications in the
following aspects.
1. the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space=
displacement of lge
2. the ability to produce the understand an indefinite number of novel
sentences.=creativity of lge
3. learning -a more important factor in human language than in animal
communication.
4. Language is complex in its structure.
5. Animal communication system is closed, whereas human lge is open
6. Humans can perform acts with lge.= performative function of lge
Language is used for
Communication
We use more words than we use gestures
when we communicate with others.
Why is so?
Just reflect on what we have discussed
above.
Features of human Language
1. Creativity/productivity
2. Duality
3. Arbitrariness
4. Displacement
5. Cultural transmission
6. Interchangeability
7. Reflexivity
People can learn and use a language. Two basic systems: a system of sounds ;
a system of meanings. It's called the duality of language.
Concern: features of the two systems and their relationship.
Creativity is the first and foremost striking
feature of human language.
It refers to the fact that language provides
opportunities for sending messages that
have never been sent before and for
understanding novel messages.
The grammar rules and the words are
finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every
speaker uses language creatively.
Duality
• Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and
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the other of meanings.
People can learn and use a language. Two basic systems:
a system of sounds ; a system of meanings. It's called the
duality of language.
Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain
meanings.
Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds
or sequences of speech sounds.
Concern: features of the two systems and their
relationship.
Arbitrariness
• The relationship between the two
subsystems of language is arbitrary.
• There is no logical connection between
sound and meaning.
Displacement
• There is no limit in time or space for
language.
• Language can be used to refer to things
real or imagined, past, present or future.
Cultural transmission
• Culture cannot be genetically transmitted.
Instead, it must be learned.
• Language is a way of transmitting culture.
• Language is the carrier of culture.
Interchangeability
All members of a speech community can
send and receive messages.
Reflexivity
• Human languages can be used to describe
themselves.
• The language used to talk about language
is called meta-language.
The functions of language:
three meta-functions
The ideational function
To identify things, to think, or to record
information.
The interpersonal function
To get along in a community.
The textual function
To form a text.
Types of language
• Natural languages and artifical languages
A natural language is one that is the
mother tongue of an ethnic community.
Natural languages that are used to break
the barrier of communication between
nations are called world lingua francas.
An artifical languages is an invented one.
Esperanto was created by a Polish oculist
Genetic classification
The Indo-European family is one of the
largest families.
English belongs to the West Germanic
division.
Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family.
Typological classification
• Analytic language – no inflections or formal changes,
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grammatical relationships are shown through word order,
such as Chinese and Vietnamese
Synthetic language – grammatical relationships are
expressed by changing the internal structure of the
words, typically by changing the inflectional endings,
such as English and German
Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long
sequence of units, with each unit expressing a particular
grammatical meaning, such as Japanese and Turkish
The myth of language – language
origin
• The Biblical account
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Language was God’s gift to human beings.
The bow-wow theory
Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of
animals, like quack, cuckoo.
The pooh-pooh theory
Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain
or joy.
The yo-he-ho theory
Language arose from the noises made by a group of people
engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game,
moving a rock, etc.
The evolution theory
Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call
of social need
What is linguistics?
• Linguistics is the scientific study of
language.
The object of study in linguistics is
language.
• Observing & questioning
• Formulating hypotheses
• Verifying the hypotheses
• Proposing a theory
Branches of linguistics
Internal branches: intra-disciplinary
divisions
– Phonetics the production of speech,
– Phonology studies the rules governig the
structure ,the sequencing of speech sounds and the
shape of syllables.
– Morphology the internal organization of words, the
minimal units of meaning –morphemes and wordformation process.
– Syntax principles of forming and undrstanding correct
English sentences
– Semantics How meaning is encoded in a language
– Pragmatics the study of meaning in context.
External branches: inter-disciplinary
divisions
– Psycholinguistics the interrelation of language and
mindin processing and producing utterances and in
language acquisition
– Sociolinguistics the social function of language and
the social characteristics of its users.
– Anthropological linguistics the history and
structure of unwritten languages
– Computational languistics the use of computer to
process or produce huamn language
– Applied linguistics the application of linguistic
theories and descriptions in language teaching.
Features of Modern linguistics
Spoken language rather than written
Descriptive and prescriptive
Synchronic and diachronic
Theoretically rather than pedagogicall oriented