Phonological
Theory
Beijing Foreign Studies University
2008
1. Development of phonology
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The phoneme theory
Distinctive Features
SPE (Chomsky & Halle 1968)
Division of phonetics and phonology
Integrated phonology
Laboratory phonology
2
Modules of study
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Phonemes and allophones
Syllables
Stress
Intonational and tonal phonology
Prosody (metrical phonology)
Phonological acquisition and cognition
Language impairment
3
Phonology in Generative Grammar
Syntax
Phonetic Form

Semantic Form
Generative Phonology
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Three stages of Generative Phonology
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Linear theories
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SPE (standard theory): Chomsky,
N. & Halle, M. 1968. The Sound
Pattern of English. Harper &
Row/MIT.
Natural Generative Phonology
Natural Phonology
5
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Non-linear theories
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Lexical Phonology
Autosegmental Phonology
Metrical Phonology
Dependency Phonology
Government Phonology
CV/VC Phonology
Declarative Phonology
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Constraint-based theory

Optimality Theory (OT): Prince, A.
& Smolensky, P. 1993/2002.
Optimality theory: constraint
interaction in generative grammar.
ms. Rutgers University. 2004.
Published by Blackwell.
7
SPE
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Rule-based.
Derivational: derivation from underlying to
surface form.
A  B / X__Y
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OT
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Constraint-based.
Development of generative phonology.
Very different way of representation.
Can be used for syntax and acquisition studies.
Aims at cognitive explanations.
9
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Constraints are universal.
Languages differ in the ranking of constraints.
Constraints can be contradictory and can be
violated.
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Examples of derivational rules
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DEVOICING: A voiced obstruent becomes
voiceless after a voiceless obstruent.
ə-INSERTION: Insert [ə] between two
adjacent sibilants in the same word.
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Examples of constraints
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*SIBSIB: sibilants cannot occur cnosecutively
within a word.
*VOICEVOICE: consecutive obstruents
must be identical in voicing within a syllable.
MAX-IO: deletion of segment is prohibited.
DEP-IO: insertion of segment is prohibited.
IDENT-IO: input segment and the
corresponding output must be identical.
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2. Linear Phonology


Make the rules as general as possible.
Use “Distinctive Features” instead of
individual sound segments when writing the
rules.
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Distinctive Features

The idea of Distinctive Features was
first developed by Roman Jacobson
(1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of
working out a set of phonological
contrasts or oppositions to capture
particular aspects of language sounds.
Since then several versions have been
suggested.
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Major class features
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consonantal (con): sounds produced with a major
obstruction in the oral cavity.
approximant (approx): sounds made with an oral
tract constriction which is less than that required to
produce friction.



Vowels, glides and liquids are [+approx], other sounds are
[-approx].
Also known as syllabic (syl) to indicate that they can form
a syllable peak.
sonorant (son): sounds produced with a vocal tract
configuration in which spontaneous voicing is
possible.

Obstruents (plosives, affricates and fricatives) are [-son],
other sounds are [+son].
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Vowel place features
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high: the body of the tongue is raised from the
neutral position.
low: the body of the tongue is lowered from the
neutral position.
back: the body of the tongue is retracted from
the neutral position.
round: the lips are protruded.
tense: sounds requiring deliberate, accurate,
maximally distinct gestures that involve
considerable muscular effort.
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
advanced tongue root (ATR): vowels made by
drawing the root of the tongue forward, thus
enlarging the pharyngeal cavity, tending to
raise the tongue body, and tending to give the
sound a more tense articulation, e.g. [i e o u].

[-ATR] sounds lack this gesture, e.g. [I E ç U a A].
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Consonant place features
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labial (lab): Sounds that involve a constriction
of the lips to give either a labial (labiodental)
consonant or a rounded vowel/glide.
coronal (cor): produced with the blade or tip of
the tongue raised from the neutral position.

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anterior (ant): defined only for coronal sounds. An
anterior ([+ant]) sound is made with a constriction
at or forward of, the alveolar ridge. Posterior ([-ant])
sounds are produced behind the alveolar ridge.
The anteriors are the dentals and alveolars, the
posterior sounds are the retroflex, palato-alveolar
and palatal sounds.
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
dorsal (dor): Sounds made by raising the
dorsum (tongue body) towards the hard palate,
the soft palate (velum) or the uvula.


The dorsal consonants are the velars and uvulars.
radical (rad): Sounds produced in the
pharyngeal or laryngeal (glottal) region, e.g.
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
strident (strid): produced with a construction
with greater noisiness.


Stridency is only defined for fricatives and affricates.
Labiodentals, sibilants and uvular fricatives/
affricates are [+strid]; all other fricatives/affricates
are [-strid].
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Manner features

continuant (cont): the primary constriction is
not narrowed so much that airflow through the
oral cavity is blocked.

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Plosives and nasal stops are [-cont], other sounds
(including laterals) are [+cont].
nasal (nas): the velum is lowered which allows
air to escape through the nose.
lateral (lat): the mid section of the tongue is
lowered at the side.
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Laryngeal features
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voice: the vocal folds vibrate.
spread glottis (spread, or s.g.): the vocal folds
are spread far apart.

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Aspirated (voiceless) consonants, breathy or
murmured voiced consonants and voiceless
vowels/glides are [+spread]; other sounds are [spread].
Also known as aspirated.
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Distinctive feature matrix for English
consonants
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
Now we can represent the rule that governs the
unaspiration of /p/ after [s] in terms of
features:
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Past tense forms in English
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stopped, walked, coughed, kissed, leashed,
reached
stabbed, wagged, achieved, buzzed, soothed,
bridged
steamed, stunned, pulled
played, flowed, studied
wanted, located, decided, guided
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
The regular past tense form in English is
pronounced as [t] when the word ends with a
voiceless consonant, [d] when it ends with a
voiced sound, and [ɪd] when it ends with [t] or
[d].
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Plural rule
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z   / [-voice, +cons]______ (Devoicing)
   / 咝擦音_____z
(增音)
z  z 剩余位置
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Obligatory Contour Principle
(OCP)

Obligatory Contour Principle

No identical adjacent autosegments.
(Goldsmith 1976)
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3. Non-linear Phonology

These theories began as a method for
representing prosodic features such the stress
in complex words, so that their different levels
of stress are represented not by linear orders
but by a metrical grid:
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
Later the method was extended to the
representation of earlier linear rules.
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Plural rule (1)
[+cons]
[-son]
root
[+cons]
[-son]
plural
z
Laryngeal
[-voice]
Laryngeal
[+voice]
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Plural rule (2)
ØX
[-cons]
/X____________X
[+cons]
[+cons]
[+strid]
[COR]
[+strid]
[COR]
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Past tense rule (1)
[+cons]
[-son]
root
[+cons]
[-son]
past
d
Laryngeal
[-voice]
Laryngeal
[+voice]
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Past tense rule (2)
ØX
[-cons]
/X__________X
[+cons]
[+cons]
[-cont]
[-nas]
[-cont]
[-nas]
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4. OT

The ranking of the constraints is represented
by a “tableau”.
Input Candidate
Constraint1
a.  Candidate a
b.
Candidate b
Constraint2
*
*!
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Review of some constraints




*VOICEVOICE: consecutive obstruents
must be identical in voicing within a syllable.
DEP-IO: insertion of segment is prohibited.
IDENT-IO: input segment and the
corresponding output must be identical.
OCP: No identical adjacent autosegments.
36
OT tableau for plural forms (1)
a.
/

/
OCP
[

]
*!
b.  [

ə]
DEP-IO
*voice-voice
*
*
c.
[

]
*!
d.
[

]
*!
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OT tableau for plural forms (2)
/
/
a.
[
ə]
b.
[
]
c.  [
]
OCP
DEP-IO *voice-voice IDENT(F)
*!
*!
*
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OT tableau for past forms (1)
a.
/wntd/
OCP
[wntd]
*!
b.  [wnt
d]
DEP-IO
*voice-voice
*
*
c.
[wndd]
*!
d.
[wntt]
*!
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OT tableau for past forms (2)
/wkd/
a. [wk
d]
b. [wkd]
c.  [wkt]
OCP
DEP-IO *voice-voice IDENT(F)
*!
*!
*
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Ranking of the constraints
OCP » DEP-IO » *voice-voice »
IDENT(F)
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