Chapter 10: Analyzing Arguments
From this chapter, you’ll learn
• how writers typically introduce the point of
their argument.
• how to pare an argument down to the basics
in order to better understand it.
• how to detect errors in logic that indicate an
author is excessively biased, or too prejudiced,
to be fully trusted.
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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Common Introductions in Arguments
Arguments can be introduced any number of ways, but there are
six common methods authors typically use. They are as
follows:
1. Contrast one opinion with another: “While it’s true that Facebook is good
for social networking, it’s proving to be remarkably unsuccessful as a study
tool.”
2. Challenge a traditional belief: “For years, we’ve assumed that being an
only child was a drawback, but, in fact, being an only child has real
advantages.”
3. Call for action: “Those who believe in and support the freedom of the
Internet need to make themselves heard in both public and private
forums. “
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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Common Introductions in
Arguments
4. Make a prediction: “When it comes to searching for information on the
web, all the indicators suggest that within two years Facebook will have
overtaken Google.”
5. Cite new research as evidence for a new perspective: “It’s long been
assumed that students would find it easier to master their textbooks if
the language and graphics were simplified. But recent studies in
cognitive research, suggest that making texts simple may make
remembering what those texts say harder, rather than easier.”
6. Evaluate a group, person, or argument: “ There are times when members
of the television media seem an easy punching bag and criticism of how
they cover key political and social events seems unfair and unfounded.
But in the case of the flood that tore through Nashville in 2010, the
furious criticism of media coverage, or more accurately, of its absence,
seems not just fair but a necessary corrective to the media’s stunning
neglect of this major disaster.”
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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Spot Quiz
Read the following passage and identify (1) the opinion being argued and (2)
the method of introduction.
• In the first half of 2010, Google claimed that it had 4,200 requests for
consumer information from law enforcement agencies. Already in 2009, the
social media site Facebook had claimed that subpoenas from law
enforcement were arriving at a rate of 10 to 20 per day. These kinds of
numbers are hard evidence for what Susan Freiwald, a professor at the
University of San Francisco School of Law as well as an expert on the issues
surrounding electronic surveillance, has publicly pointed out. The main law
governing the privacy of communication was enacted in 1986. This was long
before cell phone, text messaging, tweeting, and e-mailing were
widespread. It was before social networking even existed. Thus the law is no
longer capable of protecting personal privacy unless it is amended to take
into account the new methods and means of communication.
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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Looking for Support
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An opinion does not an argument make. To be considered an argument and taken
seriously, an opinion needs to have support. Like introductions, support for an opinion
can take several different forms. Here are some of the most common:
Reasons: Reasons are probably the main method of support used by authors who want
to persuade readers to share their opinion, e.g. “Boxers need to wear helmets because
so many aging boxers show the signs of early onset dementia, a cognitive impairment
tied to multiple concussions. “
Personal Experience: One common way to support an opinion and, in addition, to get
readers on your side, is to report personal experiences that support your position, e.g. “I
never took very seriously those stories about dogs who saved their owner’s life, but that
was before I had a heart attack and my dog got the neighbors’ attention by barking
wildly through the window. Now I’m a believer. Dogs really do sense when their owners
are in trouble.”
Expert Opinion: Writers trying to persuade are very likely to call up the testimony of
experts. This is the writer’s way of saying, People who know a lot about this subject
agree with me, so you should too, for instance, “Web site design has to be clean and
easy to use. What it doesn’t need to be is filled with noisy animation. As usability guru
Jakob Nielsen has long pointed out, too many bells and whistles make viewers
disappear.”
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Looking for Support
• Statistics and Studies: Writers frequently cite studies or statistics to make
their case. “Wellness programs in the workplace should not be viewed as
an extra benefit employers provide to lure good people into their
company. They are also a source of real profit for the employer who
implements them. According to research conducted by Leonard L. Berry of
Mays Business School at Texas A&M University, comprehensive, well-run
employee wellness programs improve productivity and reduce
absenteeism large margins. These are big benefits for the employer.”
• Examples: To make their point convincing writers frequently provide
readers with several examples. “ Anyone who thinks that head injuries are
a plague on professional football need to consider the number of former
players who are now suffering from early onset dementia. It’s a long and
sad list, one that includes Brent Boyd, a former NFL line man, who began
experiencing symptoms in his forties. Also on the list is Hall of Fame
player John Mackey. Listed too are the names of football power houses
Jimmy Giles and Jerry Eckwood, and these are just a few of the many
names that are being added daily.
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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Spot Quiz: Supporting Details
In 2010, WikiLeaks was much in the news for publishing thousands of documents that
the government had classified as secret. Below is a response from Steven
Aftergood, a scientist who has his own website, where he publishes information he
thinks the public needs to have at its disposal in order to evaluate research.
What’s his opinion and how does he support it?
•
I’m all for the exposure of corruption, including classified corruption. And to the
extent that WikiLeaks has done that, I support its actions. The problem is, it has
done a lot more than that, much of which is problematic. It has invaded personal
privacy. It has published libelous material. It has violated intellectual property
rights. And above all, it has launched a sweeping attack not simply on corruption,
but on secrecy itself. And I think that’s both a strategic and a tactical error. It’s a
strategic error because some secrecy is perfectly legitimate and desirable. It’s a
tactical error because it has unleashed a furious response from the U.S.
government and other governments that I fear is likely to harm the interests of a
lot of other people besides WikiLeaks who are concerned with open government.
(Excerpted from an interview with Alternet December 3, 2010)
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Spot Quiz: Supporting Details
What is the author’s opinion and how is that opinion supported?
Singer Bruno Mars has been on stage practically since he could
walk, and it’s no surprise that his music is informed by the
doo-wop* songs he sang with his dad Pete Hernandez, when
young Bruno was barely out of diapers. Doo-wop music relied
heavily on explicit rhyme and uncomplicated melodies, and to
hear its influence on Mars, you need only listen to songs like
“Grenade” with its unfussy, straight-forward rhyme scheme, “
I’d jump in front of a train for ya…/Take a bullet straight
through my brain/Yes, I would die for you.” As Mars has said in
the past, “I’m not going to Shakespeare it out.” Instead, he
keeps it simple, just like his dad. (Adapted from Jonah Weiner. “Mr. Showbiz.” Rolling
Stone. January 20, 2011,p. 51.)
* Doo-wop music was a particular kind of music that emerged in the forties and has never gone out of fashion.
It features uncomplicated rhyme, smooth harmonies, and the direct expression of emotion.
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copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
Spot Quiz: Supporting Details
What is the author’s opinion and how is that opinion supported?
• “The pharmaceutical industry likes to claim that drugs are
expensive because so much of the money earned has to go
into research on new and promising medications to treat
illness. However, the truth is that the industry spends almost
twice as much on promotion as it does on research, and
that’s a key reason why the medications we buy are so
expensive. A big portion of the profits they earn go into
advertizing. In fact, a new study by two York University
researchers indicates that for every dollar earned, the
pharmaceutical industry spent 24.4% on promotional efforts
and 13.4 % on research and development.
source of study and statistics:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/080105140107.htm
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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Spot Quiz: Supporting Details
What is the author’s opinion and how is that opinion supported?
• My daughter’s experience playing soccer made me a believer in the
importance of funding sports for girls. I had never taken much of an interest
in sports myself as a kid, so I didn’t press my daughter to take an interest in
them either. But then her teacher suggested that playing a sport could make
a big difference in my shy and insecure daughter’s self confidence. I took the
teacher’s advice and encouraged Melanie to play soccer, and it wasn’t long
before I saw a huge difference in her behavior. She stopped looking in the
mirror constantly to check her appearance and seemed genuinely excited
about her performance in practice. She became more organized and more
efficient with her time. Best of all she didn’t spend every waking hour talking
on her cell or texting her best friend. She was too busy to waste her time
talking about inconsequential matters. She wanted to be the field with her
teammates. Most importantly she learned about the thrill of achievement
and the desire for excellence. Sports programs for girls should be heavily
funded and supported. We have always known that sports was a character
builder for boys. It’s time to recognize that it does the same for girls.
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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A Word to the Wise
• Personal examples or anecdotes work best in tandem with reasons and studies.
They enliven the writing so that readers don’t get restless. They also encourage
readers to be sympathetic to those writers willing to share their experiences.
• But as for making you share the writer’s opinion, don’t rush into doing that until
you know more, even if the personal experience described encourages you to like
the writer and makes you feel that you know him or her personally. That’s what
writers strive to do--come alive for the reader. In part it’s a tactic to get you on
their side. That’s fine as long as you keep in mind that the author is trying to
influence you. In short, don’t rush to embrace, without thinking through, the ideas
of authors you like because they employ an appealing tone.
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
• Sometimes writers get blinded by their own
convictions. So convinced are they that they
are right, they don’t offer any support for their
claims. Instead, they say the same thing over
and over assuming that eventually you’ll come
to agree. Or else, they get mentally sloppy
and use careless logic or reasoning. Here now
are several ways writers can go wrong.
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1. Irrelevant Reasons
• Supporting opinions with reasons is one of the
key ways writers convince. But to be
convincing reasons have to be relevant. They
have to be related to the opinion they
support. Unfortunately, writers who are
heavily biased in favor of their own position
are likely to forget the importance of
relevance, for example:
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Example: Irrelevant Reason
•
Much has recently been written about the role of women in
combat during the Iraq War. Thus the time seems ripe to finally
admit women into combat duty. In Iraq they were slipped in
through the back door due to a lack of man power, but women
in the military should routinely be used in combat roles. We are
no longer living in the nineteenth century when women were
believed to be weaker and frailer then men. Women are capable
of leading huge organizations and fighting hard to stay on top.
Surely we can now acknowledge their ability to be soldiers who
go into combat and fight alongside their male peers.
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2. Circular Reasoning
• Sometimes writers are so convinced they are
correct in their opinions, they can’t imagine
any disagreement. Unable to imagine
someone who disagrees, they don’t bother to
support their opinion. Instead, they repeat it
using different words. In other words, they
paraphrase themselves and forget to give a
reason or illustration in support of their point,
for instance:
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Example: Circular Reasoning
• What was different about American politics in the
past was that people cared; ordinary citizens were
informed, and they stood up for what they believed
in, making their will known to those they had
elected. People today know nothing about the issues
that profoundly affect their lives. They don’t know
and they don’t care. They just hope things will get
better, and when they don’t they complain. They
don’t do anything about them. In that sense, they
are very different from the generations of Americans
who preceded them.
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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3.Hasty Generalizations
• To be meaningful, generalizations need to be backed
by numerous individual examples. The broader the
generalization, the more examples needed to back it
up. This is a solid generalization: “Hurricanes are
becoming a bigger threat to life and property than
they were in the past. The number and intensity of
hurricanes has tripled over the course of the last five
years with a similar increase shown in mortality and
property damage.” Ten years of increases is a lot of
evidence to back that generalization. However, not
all generalizations are so solid, for instance:
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Example: Hasty Generalization
• This broad generalization, however, with its puny
back up is way too hasty: Cats are dangerous to
small children. My neighbor’s cat scratched his small
daughter when she pulled the cat’s tail while trying
to play with him.
• To make this claim about cats convincing, the writer
would need to supply many more examples.
• Keep in mind that the broader the generalization the
more examples you need.
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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4. Inappropriate or Unidentified Experts
• It makes perfect sense for writers to quote the statements of
experts when they are arguing an opinion. Readers are rightly
inclined to trust the word of experts who have years of
training and experience on the subject under discussion.
• Unfortunately, in an effort to convince some writers don’t
always worry if the experts they quote have the appropriate
expertise. Sometimes, they don’t even tell readers who their
experts are, preferring instead to say “It’s well know among
researchers that….” Well maybe it is, but before you take that
as a fact, you should probably determine if the writer says,
somewhere else in the reading, who those researchers are.
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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Example: Inappropriate Expert
• The evidence in favor of charter schools continues to
mount as a growing number of educational experts
speak out in favor of the charter school movement,
which they believe can profoundly improve the way
we educate our children. As Bill Gates, the founder of
Microsoft, said in a 2010 speech, “I really think that
charters have the potential to revolutionize the way
students are educated.”
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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Final Wrap: Analyzing Arguments
What opinion does the author of the following express? How
does the author support that opinion?
• The social networking site Facebook has not been particularly
successful among the Japanese. Facebook users in Japan
number fewer than two million, or less than 2 percent of the
country’s online population. That is in sharp contrast to the
United States, where 60 percent of all Internet users are on
Facebook. (Source of
Statistics:http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/10/technology/10facebook.html?_r=2&pagewanted=all)
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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Final Wrap: Analyzing Arguments
What opinion is the author expressing? The author supports that opinion by
________ and ___________?
• Those convinced that the mass bird deaths in Arkansas at the beginning of
2011 are the result of the birds colliding with a spaceship need not be
alarmed. Mass bird deaths are not common but they are also not signs of
extraterrestrial invasion. They have occurred in the past, but during times
when communication was not quite so rapid or easy, and people just
didn’t know they occurred. Cold and wet weather, like Arkansas had on
New Year's Eve when the birds fell out of the sky, is often associated with
mass bird deaths. Pollution, parasites and disease have also been known
to cause mass deaths. Since the 1970s, the U.S. Geological National
Wildlife Health Center in Wisconsin has tracked mass deaths among birds,
fish, and other animals, according to wildlife disease specialist LeAnn
White.
(Information from:http://www.valleynewslive.com/Global/story.asp?S=13798420)
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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Final Wrap: Analyzing Arguments
What point does the author make? What methods does the author use to introduce that
point? What kind of support does the author use?
• The evidence keeps piling up indicating that many football players have suffered
long-term, cognitive effects as a result of the physical injuries they endured on the
field. If changes aren’t made to football equipment to offer players more protection
against injury, the number of players suffering from cognitive impairment will
continue to rise. Football helmets, for instance, need to be redesigned in order to
offer players better protection from repeated concussions, which have long-term and
devastating effects on the players who suffer them. A study commissioned by the
National Football League reports that Alzheimer's disease or similar memory-related
diseases appear to have been diagnosed in the league's former players vastly more
often than in the national population--including a rate of 19 times the normal rate for
men ages 30 through 49. A similar study performed by researchers at Purdue
University suggests that helmets must be constructed to offer improved protection
against concussion injury. (Source of information:http://www.pennstateclips.com/2009/09/ot-one-outof-every-six-nfl-players.html)
copyright © Laraine Flemming 2012
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Final Wrap: Analyzing Arguments
What is the point the author wants readers to agree with? How
is that point introduced? What errors in reasoning mar the
argument?
• Laws against animal cruelty laws vary from state to state, but
most states do make abuse of animals a criminal felony, which
involves serving a term in prison. Treating animal abuse as a
felony needs to become a consistent policy of every state in
the nation, not just to protect animals but also to protect
people. Numerous studies have consistently shown that
people who abuse animals are likely to go on and take human
victims. This is a fact eloquently documented in Dr. Helen
Sayers book “Animals Are Only the Beginning.”
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What Do You Think?
• Should abusing animals be a felony with the
punishment including prison time? Whatever
your answer, can you offer an argument in
support of your point of view.
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