Ancient Greek for Everyone:
A New Digital Resource for
Beginning Greek
as taught at
Louisiana State University
Fall 2013
Richard Warga
Unit 18: Vocative and Imperative
Ancient Greek for Everyone
This class (someday, Month ##, 2013)
• AGE Unit 18: Vocative and Imperative
• You have already learned Greek nouns and adjectives.
• This Unit presents the final case: the vocative.
• You have already learned two moods of Greek verbs:
the indicative and infinitive.
• This Unit presents one more mood: the imperative.
Ancient Greek for Everyone
from Unit 3 part 1: Introduction to the Greek Noun
• A Greek noun communicates THREE pieces of
information:
– Gender
– Number
– Case
• Greek puts every noun into a particular “case” to
indicate its role in an action or place in an idea.
Ancient Greek for Everyone
from Unit 3 part 1: Introduction to the Greek Noun
• A Greek noun communicates THREE pieces of
information:
– Gender
– Number
– Case
Greek uses four cases:
• Nominative
• Genitive
• Dative
• Accusative
Ancient Greek for Everyone
from Unit 3 part 1: Introduction to the Greek Noun
• Greek uses four cases:
– Nominative: The nominative case indicates that a noun is
the subject of a verb.
– Genitive
– Dative
– Accusative
Mary gives the rulers the child of Joseph.
Ancient Greek for Everyone
from Unit 3 part 1: Introduction to the Greek Noun
• Greek uses four cases:
– Nominative
– Genitive
– Dative
– Accusative: The accusative case indicates that a noun is
the first (primary, direct) object of a verb.
Mary gives the rulers the child of Joseph.
Ancient Greek for Everyone
from Unit 3 part 1: Introduction to the Greek Noun
• Greek uses four cases:
– Nominative
– Genitive
– Dative: The dative case indicates that a noun is the second
(indirect) object of a verb.
– Accusative:
Mary gives the rulers the child of Joseph.
Ancient Greek for Everyone
from Unit 3 part 1: Introduction to the Greek Noun
• Greek uses four cases:
– Nominative
– Genitive
– Dative: The dative case also indicates the means, tool or
instrument used to accomplish an action. English most often
uses “with” to indicate this use. As often, where English uses a
separate word, Greek uses a suffix.
– Accusative:
Mary carries the child with her hands.
Ancient Greek for Everyone
from Unit 3 part 1: Introduction to the Greek Noun
• Greek uses four cases:
– Nominative
– Genitive: The genitive case plays roughly the same
role as the preposition “of” in English. As often, where
English uses a separate word, Greek uses a suffix.
– Dative
– Accusative:
Mary gives the rulers the child of Joseph.
The cup is empty of water.
Ancient Greek for Everyone
from Unit 3 part 1: Introduction to the Greek Noun
• Greek uses four cases:
– Nominative
– Genitive: While English can indicate possession either with “of”
or an ’s, Greek can indicate possession only with the Genitive case.
All the highlighted words would be in the Genitive case in Greek,
with no distinction among them.
Mary gives the rulers the child of Joseph.
Mary gives the rulers Joseph’s child.
Joseph’s cup is empty of water.
Elementary Greek
The Vocative Case
• There are occasions when a Greek speaker or writer needs
to call out to someone or something.
• The one remaining case, the vocative, covers this occasion
of using nouns and adjectives.
Elementary Greek
The Vocative Case
• Most often, the nominative forms of nouns as adjectives
double as vocative uses:
• In the plural, all nouns simply use their nominative plural
forms for the vocative:
–
–
–
–
παραδίδοτε ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι τὴν πατρίδα.
You Athenian men are betraying your country.
παραδίδοτε, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, τὴν πατρίδα.
Athenian men, you are betraying your country.
• Often Greek uses the marker ὦ to signal the vocative case,
but it is not necessary and it is usually best to omit it in
English translation.
Elementary Greek
The Vocative Case
• Most often, the nominative forms of nouns as adjectives
double as vocative uses:
• All neuter nouns simply use their nominative forms for the
vocative:
–
–
–
–
παραδίδως, ὦ τέκνον, τὴν πατρίδα.
Child, you are betraying your country.
παραδίδως, ὦ τέκνα, τὴν πατρίδα.
Children, you are betraying your country.
• Often Greek uses the marker ὦ to signal the vocative case,
but it is not necessary and it is usually best to omit it in
English translation.
Elementary Greek
The Vocative Case
• Some masculine and feminine nouns, and the adjectives that
modify them, use just their stem for the vocative singular:
–
–
–
–
–
–
παραδίδως, ὦ πάτερ, τὴν πατρίδα.
Father, you are betraying your country.
παραδίδως, ὦ μῆτερ, τὴν πατρίδα.
Mother, you are betraying your country.
παραδίδως, ὦ θύγατερ, τὴν πατρίδα.
Daughter, you are betraying your country.
• Often Greek uses the marker ὦ to signal the vocative case,
but it is not necessary and it is usually best to omit it in
English translation.
Elementary Greek
The Vocative Case
• Some masculine and feminine nouns, and the adjectives that
modify them, use just their stem for the vocative singular:
–
–
–
–
–
–
παραδίδως, ὦ βασιλεῦ, τὴν πατρίδα.
King, you are betraying your country.
παραδίδως, ὦ Σώκρατες, τὴν πατρίδα.
Socrates, you are betraying your country.
παραδίδως, ὦ στρατιώτα, τὴν πατρίδα.
Soldier, you are betraying your country.
• Often Greek uses the marker ὦ to signal the vocative case,
but it is not necessary and it is usually best to omit it in
English translation.
Ancient Greek for Everyone
from Unit 1 part 3: How to end a Greek word
• A Greek word can end only in a vowel, -ν, -ρ or -ς.
• If necessary, consonants will drop from the end until the
word reaches an allowable final sound
– For example, σῶματ  σῶμα.
Elementary Greek
The Vocative Case
• Some masculine and feminine nouns, and the adjectives that
modify them, use just their stem for the vocative singular.
• For pronunciation, sometimes the stem is further shortened:
–
–
–
–
–
–
παραδίδως, ὦ ἄνερ, τὴν πατρίδα. (stem = ἀνδερ-)
Man, you are betraying your country.
παραδίδως, ὦ γύναι, τὴν πατρίδα. (stem = γυναικ-)
Woman, you are betraying your country.
παραδίδως, ὦ παῖ, τὴν πατρίδα. (stem = παιδ-)
Child, you are betraying your country.
• Often Greek uses the marker ὦ to signal the vocative case,
but it is not necessary and it is usually best to omit it in
English translation.
Elementary Greek
The Vocative Case
• Some masculine and feminine nouns, and the adjectives that
modify them, use just their stem for the vocative singular.
• For pronunciation, sometimes the stem is further shortened.
All masculine (and feminine) nouns of the 2nd declension
shorten the ending of their stem from –ο to –ε:
– παραδίδως, ὦ ἀδελφέ, τὴν πατρίδα. (stem = ἀδελφο-)
– Brother, you are betraying your country.
Compare Greek –ω verbs, which end their stems in –ο
but also shorten it to –ε (λύομεν/λύετε).
Elementary Greek
The Vocative Case
• Otherwise, Greek nouns are generally identical in the
nominative and vocative singular.
• Adjectives form the vocative just as they would as nouns:
–
–
–
–
–
–
παραδίδως, ὦ κακὲ βασιλεῦ, τὴν πατρίδα.
Evil king, you are betraying your country.
παραδίδως, ὦ κακὴ βασίλεια, τὴν πατρίδα.
Evil queen, you are betraying your country.
παραδίδως, ὦ ἀληθὲς βασιλεῦ, τὴν πατρίδα.
True king, you are betraying your country.
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• You have already learned two moods of Greek verbs:
the indicative and infinitive.
• The indicative mood conveys actual historical events
in the present, past or future.
• The infinitive mood is used to refer just to the action
of a verb, when it is not necessary to indicate the
person and number of the verb.
• This Unit presents one more mood: the imperative.
• The imperative mood conveys a command for
someone to perform the action of the verb.
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• This Unit presents one more mood: the imperative.
• The indicative mood conveys a command for someone to
perform the action of the verb.
• The imperative mood occurs in only two tenses:
– present
– aorist
but exists in both voices (active and middle, and it can have passive
meaning).
Elementary Greek
• From Unit 13: The aorist tense of Greek verbs:
– Both the imperfect and aorist tenses describe actions in the
past. They differ in what is called “aspect.”
• The aorist conveys a single, discreet action. This is the more
common, default tense for referring to action in the past.
• The imperfect conveys activity that was more than a single action
in some way.
– For example:
• “I walked.” Aorist: think of a single image of the speaker in the act
of walking.
• “I was walking.” Imperfect: think of an ongoing video of the
speaker walking.
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• The imperative mood occurs in only two tenses:
– present
– aorist
• Recall that only the indicative mood ever has an augment,
so an imperative in the aorist tense never has an augment.
• The present and aorist imperatives differ in aspect:
– λαβέ! “Get it!” Aorist: quickly grab something (a single action).
– λάμβανε! “Hold on!” Present: keep holding on to something
(continuing action).
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the
second person to command the listener(s) to do
something.
• In the 2nd person plural, the imperative uses the same
personal endings as the indicative, –τε and –σθε:
–
–
–
–
λύετε, ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, τοὺς ἵππους.
Men of Athens, release your horses!
λύεσθε, ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, τοὺς ἵππους.
Men of Athens, ransom the horses!
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the
second person to command the listener(s) to do
something.
• In the 2nd person plural, the imperative uses the same
personal endings as the indicative, –τε and –σθε:
Remember that the aorist imperative cannot have an augment.
– λύσατε, ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, τοὺς ἵππους.
– Men of Athens, release your horses!
– λύσασθε, ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, τοὺς ἵππους.
– Men of Athens, ransom the horses!
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the
second person to command the listener(s) to do
something.
• In the 2nd person plural, the imperative uses the same
personal endings as the indicative, –τε and –σθε:
Remember that the aorist imperative cannot have an augment.
– λάβετε, ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, τοὺς ἵππους.
– Men of Athens, get your horses!
– λάβεσθε, ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, τοὺς ἵππους.
– Men of Athens, take the horses (for yourselves)!
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the
second person to command the listener(s) to do
something.
• In the 2nd singular active, the imperative regularly uses
the personal ending –ε:
–
–
–
–
λῦε, ὦ βασιλεῦ, τὸν ἵππον.
King, release your horse!
λάμβανε, ὦ βασιλεῦ, τὸν ἵππον.
King, hold on to your horse!
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the
second person to command the listener(s) to do
something.
• In the 2nd singular active, the imperative regularly uses
the personal ending –ε:
Remember that the aorist imperative cannot have an augment.
– λίπε, ὦ βασιλεῦ, τὸν ἵππον.
– King, leave your horse!
Five 2nd (strong) aorist imperatives accent their last syllable,
rather than following the rule of recessive accent: εἰπέ Say!
ἐλθέ Come! εὑρέ Find! ἰδέ See! λαβέ Take!
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the
second person to command the listener(s) to do
something.
• In the 2nd singular active, the imperative regularly uses
the personal ending –ε, which some –μι verbs contract:
– τίθει μοι τὰ χρήματα. (τίθεε < τίθημι) Take the money!
– δίδου μοι τὰ χρήματα. (δίδοε < δίδωμι)
Give me the money!
– ἵει τὰ χρήματα. (ἵεε < ἵημι) Throw the money!
– ἵστη τὸν ἵππον. (ἵσταε < ἵστημι) Stand up the horse!
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the
second person to command the listener(s) to do
something.
• In the 2nd singular active, a few aorist imperatives use
the –ς ending (as in the indicative):
Remember that the aorist imperative cannot have an augment.
– θὲς τὰ χρήματα. (< τίθημι) Take the money!
– δὸς μοι τὰ χρήματα. (< δίδωμι) Give me the money!
– ἕς τὰ χρήματα. (< ἵημι) Throw the money!
– σχὲς τὰ χρήματα. (< ἔχω) Hold onto the money!
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the
second person to command the listener(s) to do
something.
• An archaic imperative ending for the 2nd singular active
was –θι, which by the Classical period survived in only
a few instances:
–
–
–
–
–
στῆθι. (aorist < ἵστημι) Stand!
φάθι or φαθί (< φημί) Speak!
γνῶθι σεαυτόν. (< γιγνώσκω) Know thyself!
ἴθι. (< εἶμι, see Unit 20) Go!
ἴσθι. (< εἰμί and οἶδα, see Unit 19) Be…! or Know!
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the
second person to command the listener(s) to do
something.
• An archaic imperative ending for the 2nd singular active
was –θι, which by the Classical period survived in
only a few instances.
• The rare aorist passive/intransitive imperative uses –θι.
Remember that the imperative cannot have an augment.
– λυ + θη + θι = λύθητι. (< λύω) Be free!
A rule of pronunciation in Greek is that two consecutive syllables cannot each
have aspiration. So in this case, –θη– keeps the aspiration and the imperative
ending loses the aspiration: –θι  –τι.
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the
second person to command the listener(s) to do
something.
• In the 2nd singular middle, the imperative uses the
personal ending –σο, which may contract, as in the
indicative:
Remember that the imperative cannot have an augment.
– λύου, ὦ βασιλεῦ, τοὺς ἵππους.
– King, ransom the horses!
– λάβου, ὦ βασιλεῦ, τὸν ἵππον.
– King, take the horse (for yourself)!
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the
second person to command the listener(s) to do
something.
• A first (weak) aorist (those marked by –σα–) in the
imperative uses the personal ending –ον in the 2nd
singular active and –σαι in the 2nd singular middle:
Remember that the imperative cannot have an augment.
– λῦσον, ὦ βασιλεῦ, τοὺς ἵππους.
– King, release the horses!
– λῦσαι, ὦ βασιλεῦ, τοὺς ἵππους.
– King, ransom the horses!
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the
second person to command the listener(s) to do
something.
• A first (weak) aorist (those marked by –σα–) in the
imperative uses the personal ending –ον in the 2nd
singular active and –σαι in the 2nd singular middle:
Remember that the imperative cannot have an augment.
– λῦσαι, ὦ βασιλεῦ, τοὺς ἵππους.
– King, ransom the horses!
• Beware that this 2nd singular imperative is easily confused with
the aorist infinitive active. Often, however, the accent will differ:
κέλευσαι (imperative ) κελεῦσαι (infinitive)
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the third person
to convey to the listener(s) a command for someone else to do
something.
• English does not have 3rd person commands, but traditionally
the helper verb “let” translates the idea:
• “Let someone else do it!”
• “Let it be done!”
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the third person
to convey to the listener(s) a command for someone else to do
something.
3rd person imperative endings:
• singular: –τω (active) –σθω (middle)
• plural: –ντων (active) –σθων (middle)
– In the 3rd plural, –τωσαν and –σθωσαν become more common in
later Classical and then Koine Greek.
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the third person
to convey to the listener(s) a command for someone else to do
something.
3rd person imperative: present tense
• singular:
– λυέτω τοὺς ἵππους. (active) “Let him/her release the horses.”
– λυέσθω τοὺς ἵππους. (middle) “Let him/her ransom the horses.”
• plural:
– λυέντων τοὺς ἵππους. (active) “Let them release the horses.”
– λυέσθων τοὺς ἵππους. (middle) “Let them ransom the horses.”
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the third person
to convey to the listener(s) a command for someone else to do
something.
3rd person imperative: aorist tense
• singular:
– λυσάτω τοὺς ἵππους. (active) “Let him/her release the horses.”
– λυσάσθω τοὺς ἵππους. (middle) “Let him/her ransom the horses.”
• plural:
– λυσάντων τοὺς ἵππους. (active) “Let them release the horses.”
– λυσάσθων τοὺς ἵππους. (middle) “Let them ransom the horses.”
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the third person
to convey to the listener(s) a command for someone else to do
something.
3rd person imperative: aorist tense
• singular:
– λαβέτω τοὺς ἵππους. (active) “Let him/her grab the horses.”
– λαβέσθω τοὺς ἵππους. (middle) “Let him/her grab the horses.”
• plural:
– λαβέντων τοὺς ἵππους. (active) “Let them grab the horses.”
– λαβέσθων τοὺς ἵππους. (middle) “Let them grab the horses.”
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• A Greek speaker uses the imperative mood in the third person
to convey to the listener(s) a command for someone else to do
something.
3rd person imperative: aorist tense
• singular:
– λυθήτω ὁ ἵππος. (passive) “Let the horse be released.”
• plural:
– λυθέντων οἱ ἵπποι. (passive) “Let the horses be released.”
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• Greek uses μή to negate the imperative mood. For example:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
μὴ λῦε, ὦ βασιλεῦ, τὸν ἵππον.
King, don’t release your horse!
μὴ λύσασθε, ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, τοὺς ἵππους.
Men of Athens, don’t ransom the horses!
μὴ λαβέντων τοὺς ἵππους.
“Let them not grab the horses.”
μὴ λυθήτω ὁ ἵππος.
“Let the horse not be released.”
Elementary Greek
The Imperative Mood
• The “Master List of Greek Verb Endings” summarizes the
imperative this way:
IMPERATIVE
• 2nd person: same endings as (secondary) indicative
– except 2nd singular active : –ε or –θι
– except weak/1st aorist: 2nd singular: –ον (active) –σαι (middle)
• 3rd person: singular: –τω (active) –σθω (middle)
plural: –ντων (active) –σθων (middle)
Elementary Greek
• Next class (someday, Month ##, 2013)
– Unit 18 Biblical reading.
– Unit 18 Classical reading.
– Be able to:
• read the sentences aloud
• parse each verb, noun and pronoun
• translate the sentences into English.