RHETORIC
the study or skill of writing or speaking as a
means of communication or persuasion
RHETORIC
“The duty and office of rhetoric is to apply reason to
imagination for the better moving of the will.”
--Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Advancement of Learning
“[Rhetoric is] that discipline which studies all of the ways in
which men may influence each other's thinking and behavior
through the strategic use of symbols.”
-- Douglas Ehninger (1972)
RHETORICAL DEVICE
a rhetorical device or resource of language is a
technique that an author or speaker uses to convey to the
listener or reader a meaning with the goal of persuading
him or her towards considering a topic from a different
perspective.
Rhetorical devices used by writers
and speakers
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE (metaphor, simile, personification,
irony, overstatement, understatement, paradox, oxymoron).
IMAGERY (figurative language or description used to evoke
images in the mind)
SOUND DEVICES (alliteration, assonance, consonance,
onomatopoeia)
Such rhetorical devices may be used to evoke specific emotional
reactions in the reader or audience. There are other types of
rhetorical devices used by writer and speakers.
More rhetorical devices
RESTATEMENT OF PHRASES
The repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of
successive phrases, clauses, or sentences is called ANAPHORA.
The repetition of words or phrases at the end of successive
phrases, clauses, or sentences is called EPISTROPHE.
More rhetorical devices
TRANSITIONS
TRANSITIONS
Transitions help to make your writing flow. There are
several types of transitions a writer may employ.
A brief summarizing statement of what has
been discussed and what will be discussed
A brief statement of what has been said and what will
follow functions as a transitional summary that links
sections of writing together. It provides clarity by keeping
topics ordered and focused in the reader's mind.
Ex. In the previous paragraphs, I have offered my analysis of the
causes of this growing discontent. At this point, I would like to
take up the subject of what might be done to remedy it.
MORE TRANSITIONS
Conceding an opposing view
Anticipating an objection that might be raised by a reader
and responding to it permits an argument to continue
moving forward while taking into account opposing points.
Ex. While some might say that this battle really had no effect on
the outcome of the war, such a statement could arise only from
ignoring the effect the battle had on the career of General Mars,
who later became a principal figure in the decisive final conflict.
MORE TRANSITIONS
Asking a rhetorical question
A question is "rhetorical" if it is asked merely for effect with no
answer expected. The purpose of this figure of speech is not to
secure a response but to assert or deny a point implicitly. A
rhetorical question may serve as a subtle way of insinuating an
idea that might be challenged by an audience if asserted directly.
A rhetorical question allows the writer or speaker to control the
direction of the discussion.
Rhetorical question example
Ex. "What can we do to free our consciences? There is one line of
action by which we can do much. We can enlist the workingmen
on behalf of our enfranchisement just in proportion as we strive
with them to free the children. No labor organization in this
country ever fails to respond to an appeal for help in the freeing
of the children.”
-- Florence Kelley Speaks out on Child Labor and
Women’s Suffrage
In this excerpt from her speech, Florence Kelley does not expect
an answer; she is asking the question (and answering it) in order
to gain the audience’s support of her proposal. This type of
rhetorical question is actually called hypophora.
EXAMPLE OF A TRUE RHETORICAL
QUESTION
So, then, do we want to continue a business model that
guarantees we will lose more money next year than this year
and more money than ever each coming year?
A true rhetorical question differs from hypophora in that the
writer does not answer it because the answer is self-evident.
In other words, the expected answer is implied by the
question itself, and is often just a yes or no. In the example
above, the expected answer is “No, because businesses
cannot function by losing ever-increasing amounts of money.”
MORE RHETORICAL
DEVICES
PARALLELISM
PARALLELISM
Parallelism is the presentation of several ideas of equal
importance by putting each of them into the same kind of
grammatical structure. Each of the ideas is phrased similarly,
making for a flowing continuous sentence
Examples of parallel structure
To think carefully and to write precisely are interrelated
goals. = PARALLEL
By forming two infinitives combined with adverbs, the writer has
created a parallel structure and suggested that both ideas are
equally important.
To think carefully and precise writing are interrelated
goals. = NOT PARALLEL
By forming your subject from an infinitive and a gerund, you
have created an unparallel structure that makes your sentence
awkward and unclear.
You could change your sentence so that your subject is made up
of two infinitives (as seen above) or two gerunds (see below).
Careful thinking and precise writing are interrelated goals.
= PARALLEL
Antithesis: Usually presented in
parallel structure
Antithesis
Antithesis contrasts two ideas by placing them next to each
other, almost always in a parallel structure. It's an effective
way to clarify an idea since it shows how the idea differs
from another.
Example:
To err is human; to forgive, divine.
-Alexander Pope
That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.
-Neil Armstrong
MORE RHETORICAL
DEVICES AND
TECHNIQUES
CLARITY
CLARITY
If you are not clear in your writing, your point will be lost. You
can improve the clarity of your message in the following ways:
Definition – In order to prevent confusion and increase clarity, it is
sometimes necessary to provide your definition of a word or idea.
Defining a word or phrase is a good technique to incorporate into your
SAQ responses and expository essays.
You may need to define a literary term to demonstrate your
understanding. Think about the Dr. Seuss SAQ where you needed to
demonstrate your understanding of alliteration.
You may need to define a concept or an idea according to your
perspective. For example, how would you define a “good teacher”?
What qualities must a good teacher possess? Everyone has their own
notion, so you would need to define the qualities that, in your view,
make a teacher good or effective. In an expository essay, this definition
becomes part of your explanation.
In a short answer question, you would define and then SUPPORT/PROVE
with text evidence.
CLARITY, cont.
Examples – Providing specific examples of an idea can help
clarify the point you are trying to make. In your SAQ
response, your quote or paraphrase serves as an example or
proof to your claim.
Examples are also a good way to explain your thesis
statement in your expository essay.
Details - By restating a word or idea and adding more
detail, a writer can call attention to an expression that may
otherwise be passed over.
Ex. In my hunger, after ten days of overly rigorous dieting, I
saw visions of ice cream - mountains of creamy, luscious ice
cream, dripping with gooey syrup and calories.
USING RHETORIC TO
PERSUADE
The persuasive speech and persuasive essay
Should I go with Spock or Kirk?
Logic or emotion?
A little bit of both will take you a long way
in persuading your audience.
PERSUASIVE LANGUAGE
Persuasive language can appeal to emotions and
logic.
Emotional appeals use charged language to appeal
to the reader’s positive or negative feelings.
Appeals to logic rely on facts and valid reasoning
to sway the reader.
Emotional appeals in persuasive
writing
The use of imagery, figurative language, anecdotes
and emotionally charged words can be used to appeal
to the reader’s or audience’s emotions.
Rhetorical questions can also be used as an emotional
appeal.
Appeals to logic in persuasive
writing
Facts, statistics, expert opinions and explanations, and
logical reasoning can be used to appeal to logic in
persuasive writing.
Florence Kelley speaks out on
child labor and women’s suffrage
In her speech on child labor and women’s suffrage,
Florence Kelley appealed to logic through her use of
facts about the various state laws. She also used
logical reasoning to reach logical conclusions.
However, Kelley also used imagery, figurative
language, rhetorical questions, and emotionally
charged language to elicit an emotional response from
the audience.
Reading and listening critically to
persuasive arguments
Critical listeners and readers can identify the different
types of arguments used in persuasive writing and
recognize the strength or weakness of the argument.
Types of persuasive arguments
and what to look for
Cause/Effect: Is the effect really caused by what the
speaker says caused it?
Always True: Does one truth necessarily mean everything
the speaker says is true?
Straw Man: Is the speaker attacking a weak idea to avoid
a strong truth?
Slippery Slope: Speakers presume the results of a
problem without proof.
Bandwagon: Speakers assert that everyone thinks one
way so you should, too.
Types of persuasive arguments
and what to look for, cont.
Loaded Words/Scare Tactics: Some words cause fear.
The speaker is trying to scare you into seeing things
his way.
Circular Logic: Because a speaker says you are
something, you are.
Red Herring: Speakers draw attention away from real
issues.
Two Wrongs: Pointing to the mistakes of others does
not justify your mistakes. In politics, we call this
mudslinging.
RHETORIC
Much like the Force in Star Wars, rhetoric
can be used for good or for evil. You can use
rhetoric for good and create a strong,
convincing argument, or you can give in to the dark side
and create a flawed argument that does not hold up
under scrutiny.
You must also be constantly vigilant when reading or
listening to the rhetoric of another. The dark side of
rhetoric can fool those who do not listen with a critical ear
or read with a critical eye. Do not be seduced by the
dark side of rhetoric. Don’t be led astray into believing a
faulty argument.
Read carefully, young Skywalker. May the Rhetoric be
with you.