Chapter Focus
Section 1 State Constitutions
Section 2 The Three Branches
Section 3 State Government Policy
Section 4 Financing State
Government
Chapter Assessment
Chapter Objectives
•
State Constitutions Explain the importance
and functions of state constitutions.
•
The Three Branches Discuss the
organization and functions of the three
branches of state governments.
•
State Government Policy Analyze ways in
which state governments write and enforce
public policy.
•
Financing State Government Identify and
evaluate various sources of state revenue.
State Constitutions
Key Terms
initiative, constitutional convention, constitutional
commission
Find Out
• What are the four most important functions of
state constitutions?
• What are the basic common characteristics of
state constitutions?
State Constitutions
Understanding Concepts
Federalism Why are state constitutions lengthy
documents compared to the nation’s Constitution?
Section Objective
Explain the importance and functions of
state constitutions.
California is perhaps the state that is best
known for a provision found in many state
constitutions—proposing constitutional
amendments by popular initiative. During
the 1990s, California voters passed several
amendments that stirred public interest
across the nation. One notable example
was Proposition 209, a popular initiative
passed by the voters in 1997 by a margin
of 54 to 46 percent. Proposition 209 ended
the state’s affirmative action program in
education, hiring, and the awarding of
government contracts.
I. Importance of Constitutions (pages 637–638)
A. State constitutions create the structure of
state governments.
B. State constitutions establish local
governments, such as counties, townships,
municipalities, special districts, parishes,
and boroughs.
C. State constitutions regulate how state
and local governments can raise and
spend money.
D. State constitutions establish independent
state agencies, boards, and commissions.
I. Importance of Constitutions (pages 637–638)
Which do you think should have more power
to make decisions about local matters, state
government or local government?
Answers will vary. Students should
understand that local governments are
creations of the states.
II. Constitutional Characteristics (page 638)
A. All state constitutions have a bill of rights,
with most of the protections as in the Bill of
Rights in the Constitution of the United
States, and many states also guarantee
other rights.
B. Many state constitutions have become long
documents as a result of additions made
over the years.
C. Long state constitutions are filled with
detailed, specific provisions, often reflecting
special interest politics.
II. Constitutional Characteristics (page 638)
Do you think a state constitution should
have many or few detailed provisions?
Explain.
Answers will vary. For discussion of state
constitutions see text page 638.
III. Amendments and Changes
(pages 639–640)
A. Some state constitutions have a great number
of amendments.
B. Constitutions of the 50 states provide four
different methods of proposing amendments.
1. The most common method of proposing
amendments is by the state legislatures.
a. Eighteen states also allow the people
to propose amendments by popular
initiative.
b. Some states allow a state
constitutional convention to propose
amendments.
c. Some states use a constitutional
commission to propose amendments.
III. Amendments and Changes
(pages 639–640)
C. All states except Delaware require
ratification of amendments by popular vote;
most require a simple majority vote. When
voters rather than the legislature vote on an
issue, it is called a referendum.
III. Amendments and Changes
(pages 639–640)
What provisions would you like to see in
your state constitution?
Students should address issues or conditions
that have lasting significance.
IV. Criticism and Reform (page 640)
A. Over the years, critics have charged that
state constitutions are too long and filled
with needless detail.
B. In order to replace existing state constitutions,
most states require a constitutional
convention.
C. In most states, the legislature proposes the
convention, which the voters must approve,
and then voters, in a new election, choose
delegates to write a new document or
propose changes to the existing constitution.
D. During the 1980s, more state judges began to
interpret state constitutions independently of
the Constitution of the United States.
IV. Criticism and Reform (page 640)
Do you think state judges should interpret
state constitutions independently of the
United States Constitution? Explain.
Students should be aware that judicial
review at the state level must not violate the
national constitution.
Checking for Understanding
1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the
one below to identify the purposes served by
state constitutions.
create structure of state government, establish
types of local government, regulate how state
and local governments spend money, establish
state bureaucracy
Checking for Understanding
2. Define initiative, constitutional convention,
constitutional commission.
An initiative is a method by which citizens
propose a constitutional amendment or a law.
A constitutional convention is a gathering of
citizens elected to consider changing or
replacing a constitution.
A constitutional commission is a group of
experts appointed to study a state constitution
and recommend changes.
Checking for Understanding
3. Identify state constitution.
A state constitution creates and outlines the
structure of state government.
Checking for Understanding
4. In what ways are most state constitutions alike?
They separate power into three branches, have
a bill of rights, and include much specific detail.
Checking for Understanding
5. Why are state constitutions amended more
frequently than the federal Constitution?
Because state constitutions are more detailed
and deal with more immediate and specific
concerns, they go out of date more quickly,
requiring further amendments.
Critical Thinking
6. Identifying Central Issues Why do you think
so many amendments to state constitutions
have been adopted, when the people have
been reluctant to approve of constitutional
conventions for reform?
Students might suggest that people may fear
major changes that would come with a new
constitution, preferring to revise the old one.
Federalism Many state constitutions
contain historic provisions that are no
longer applicable, such as a tax to help
veterans of the Civil War. Examine your
state constitution. Identify provisions in
the constitution that may no longer be
applicable. Do you think that states
should take the time to eliminate these
provisions? Why?
The Three Branches
Key Terms
bicameral, lieutenant governor, plurality, item veto,
civil case, criminal case
Find Out
• How do state legislatures and governors work
together to pass laws and carry out policies that
affect citizens of a state?
• How do states differ in their methods of selecting
qualified people to serve as judges?
The Three Branches
Understanding Concepts
Separation of Powers How does the principle of
separation of powers in state government compare
with that of the federal government?
Section Objective
Discuss the organization and functions of the three
branches of state governments.
Seven sitting governors have been elected
president: Rutherford B. Hayes (Ohio),
Grover Cleveland (Ohio), William McKinley
(Ohio), Woodrow Wilson (New Jersey),
Franklin Roosevelt (New York), Bill Clinton
(Arkansas), and George W. Bush (Texas).
I. The Legislative Branch (pages 641–642)
A. The state legislature passes laws.
B. Members of state legislatures are elected
from legislative districts. Qualifications for
members are outlined in state constitutions.
C. Many state legislators work part-time in
other fields.
D. Most state legislatures:
1) are bicameral,
2) hold annual sessions, and
3) conduct business through committees.
I. The Legislative Branch (pages 641–642)
E. Many bills originate in the executive branch
of state government.
F. A bill begins in either house of the state
legislature and is debated and voted on. The
governor vetoes or signs passed bills.
I. The Legislative Branch (pages 641–642)
If you had the power to do so, how might
you adjust the qualifications for members
of your state legislature?
Answers will vary. Students should know the
qualifications for their own state.
II. The Executive Branch (pages 643–645)
A. The governor heads the executive branch of
the state government.
B. State constitutions outline qualifications of
the governor.
C. A governor generally must be nominated
by a major political party and win the
general election.
D. Most governors serve four-year terms. In 18
states, governors and other officials can be
removed from office by a recall.
II. The Executive Branch (pages 643–645)
E. The governor proposes and signs laws,
represents the state to foreign businesses, is
his or her party’s state leader, and works to
obtain federal grants.
F. Most governors prepare the state budget
and are commander in chief of the state
National Guard.
G. Since 1965, most states have given
governors greater executive power.
II. The Executive Branch (pages 643–645)
H. Governors
1) supervise the executive branch of the
state government,
2) propose legislation,
3) veto bills,
4) call special sessions of the state
legislature, and
5) have limited power over the state
court system.
I. Most states elect other members of the
executive branch.
II. The Executive Branch (pages 643–645)
In which role does the governor of your
state perform best? Explain.
Answers will vary. Roles include executive,
legislator, party leader, state spokesperson.
III. The Judicial Branch (pages 646–647)
A. State courts interpret and apply state and
local laws to civil and criminal cases.
B. The justice court performs marriages and
handles minor civil and criminal cases.
C. Municipal courts, police courts, or magistrate
courts handle cases of petty crime or
property disputes. Other minor courts
include small claims court, juvenile court,
domestic relations court, traffic court, and
probate court.
III. The Judicial Branch (pages 646–647)
D. State general trial courts hear cases
involving serious crimes.
E. State appeals courts review cases of
lower courts.
F. A state supreme court is the court of
final appeal.
G. Judges may be removed from office.
III. The Judicial Branch (pages 646–647)
What do you think is a good reason to remove
a judge from office? Why?
Answers will vary. See Removal of Judges
on text page 647.
Checking for Understanding
1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one
below to show how the roles of president and
governor differ in at least two ways.
Answers might include: president—makes
foreign policy, does not have line-item veto;
governor—does not make foreign policy, has
line-item veto
Checking for Understanding
Match the term with the correct definition.
___
F bicameral
___
C lieutenant
governor
___
E plurality
___
B item veto
___
D civil case
___
A criminal case
A. when the state brings charges
against a citizen for violating the law
B. the power to turn down particular
items in a bill without vetoing the
entire bill
C. the presiding officer of the upper
house in some state legislatures
D. usually involves a dispute between
two or more private individuals or
organizations
E. the largest number of votes in an
election
F. two-house legislative body
Checking for Understanding
3. Identify National Guard, attorney general,
secretary of state, Missouri Plan.
The National Guard is a state militia that
serves under the governor’s control.
The attorney general supervises the legal
activities of all state agencies, gives legal
advice to the governor, and acts as a lawyer for
the state in cases in which it is involved.
The secretary of state is the chief secretary or
clerk of state government.
The Missouri Plan is a selection process for
judges that combines appointment by the
governor and popular election.
Checking for Understanding
4. Why do some people question the wisdom of
electing state court judges?
They question whether people are informed
enough to elect judges, and they fear political
influences upon judges who are elected.
Critical Thinking
5. Making Comparisons How is the path a bill
takes to become a law similar in a state
legislature and the national Congress?
The bill is introduced by legislators, sent to a
committee, reported back to the house, passed
by both houses, and signed by the chief
executive. A conference committee may resolve
differences and the legislature may pass a bill
over an executive veto by a two-thirds majority
vote in both houses.
Separation of Powers Look through local
newspapers and find articles about the
governor of your state. For each article,
describe what role or roles your governor
is playing. Attach your article and role
description on a class bulletin-board
display titled “The Roles of the Governor.”
State Government Policy
Key Terms
corporate charter, public utility, workers’
compensation, unemployment compensation,
conservation, mandatory sentencing, victim
compensation, extradition, parole, shock probation,
shock incarceration, house arrest
Find Out
• What are four major objectives of state
economic policy?
• Why does each state have its own criminal laws?
State Government Policy
Understanding Concepts
Public Policy What are the major areas in which
states write and enforce public policy?
Section Objective
Analyze ways in which state governments write and
enforce public policy.
The natural ability of each state to deal
with individual issues that affect it was
foreseen by the Founders. As described by
Justice Louis D. Brandeis in a dissenting
opinion of New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann
(1932): “It is one of the happy incidents of
the federal system that a single,
courageous State may, if its citizens
choose, serve as a laboratory, and try
novel social and economic experiments
without risk to the rest of the country.”
I. State Regulation of Business (pages 648–650)
A. Business corporations must have a charter
issued by a state government.
B. Federal and state governments regulate
giant corporations.
C. States have laws to protect consumers from
unfair practices and to protect the health and
safety of workers.
D. State governments provide workers’
compensation.
E. Workers in all states have the right to belong
to labor unions.
F. State governments try to attract new
business and industry.
I. State Regulation of Business (pages 648–650)
If you were governor of your state, what
kinds of industry would you attempt to
attract to your state? Why?
Answers will vary. Students should support
their suggestions with logical reasons.
II. States and the Environment (pages 650–651)
A. States’ concerns for economic growth
sometimes clash with public concern for
the environment.
B. In 1989 Congress strengthened the states’
power to protect the environment.
C. State governments have begun to monitor
the environmental impact of major projects.
II. States and the Environment (pages 650–651)
How would you alter state regulations to
control pollution?
Answers will vary. See Costs of Pollution
Control on text page 651.
III. Protecting Life and Property (pages 651–653)
A. State and local governments are responsible
for protecting life and property, and for
establishing a criminal code and a system of
punishment.
B. State police forces have investigative powers
in many states, but they have broad
responsibilities in a few states.
C. State courts handle the majority of all criminal
cases in the United States.
D. In strained state justice systems, many states
are giving judges more sentencing options.
III. Protecting Life and Property (pages 651–653)
III. Protecting Life and Property (pages 651–653)
Do you agree or disagree with mandatory
sentencing for drug-related crimes? Explain.
Answers will vary. See State Criminal Laws
on text page 651.
IV. Providing for Education, Health,
and Welfare (pages 653–654)
A. State governments provide about 45 percent
of revenues for local public schools.
B. State spending for education generally
has increased.
C. The state licenses doctors and dentists,
regulates the sale of medicines, and
requires vaccinations for schoolchildren.
D. State agencies provide programs of public
welfare, health and human services.
IV. Providing for Education, Health,
and Welfare (pages 653–654)
E. With federal assistance, states help people
with special needs.
F. With Medicaid assistance, states help lowincome people pay medical bills.
IV. Providing for Education, Health,
and Welfare (pages 653–654)
What services do you think state government
should offer that it does not?
Answers will vary. Have students suggest
sources of revenue to pay for additional services.
Checking for Understanding
1. Main Idea Use chart to show the four major
policy areas in which state governments enact
legislation and an example of each.
business regulation: utilities, consumer
protection; environment: clean air and water;
crime: police and corrections; health,
education and welfare: school funding, AFDC
Checking for Understanding
Match the term with the correct definition.
___
B corporate
charter
___
E conservation
A. program designed to show young
offenders how terrible prison life is
through brief incarceration followed
by supervised release
___
C extradition
B. a document that gives a corporation
legal status
___
A shock
probation
C. the legal procedures through which a
person accused of a crime who has
fled to another state is returned to the
state where the crime took place
___
D house arrest
D. a sentence which requires an
offender to stay at home except for
certain functions the court permits
E. the care and protection of natural
resources
Checking for Understanding
3. Identify industrial development bonds, Medicaid.
Industrial development bonds are bonds
sold by state governments to help finance
industries that have relocated or expanded
within the state.
Medicaid is a federal-state welfare program
that provides money to the states to help
people who cannot afford necessary
medical services.
Checking for Understanding
4. Why is a decentralized system of justice an
advantage in the United States?
Different crime rates and living conditions call
for criminal laws specifically designed for
each state.
Critical Thinking
5. Expressing Problems Clearly What factors
must a state legislature weigh when considering
taxing or regulating large business corporations?
States must consider the effect of taxation and
regulation upon business and the possibility that
the state might not be attractive to business if
business taxes are too heavy or business
regulation too severe.
Public Policy Each state writes and
enforces its own policies in areas such
as education, the environment, housing,
and welfare. Create a poster that
illustrates serious problems related to
one of these areas. Share your chart
and analyze possible policy solutions.
Financing State Government
Key Terms
excise tax, regressive tax, progressive tax,
proportional tax, bond, intergovernmental revenue,
federal grant, block grant, mandate
Find Out
• What are the major sources of state tax revenue?
• Under what kinds of programs does the federal
government provide aid to states?
Financing State Government
Understanding Concepts
Public Policy How does state tax policy attempt to
distribute the burden of taxes among different
people and groups?
Section Objective
Identify and evaluate various sources of
state revenue.
States today raise large amounts of revenue
from state lotteries. Millions of residents buy
lottery tickets each day, hoping to win the
lottery jackpots. The largest prize ever won
was $363 million, in a 2000 multistate lottery
called The Big Game. Both winners chose to
receive cash payments of about $90 million
as their share of the jackpot. Of course,
even though they had beaten huge odds
they still had to pay income tax to both the
state and federal governments.
I. Tax Revenue (pages 656–657)
A. Individual state constitutions limit state
taxing powers, as does the Constitution of
the United States.
B. Today, most state governments have
some type of sales tax, which accounts
for about half of the total tax revenue of
state governments.
C. Most states now also have individual income
taxes and corporate income taxes, which
account for more than 30 percent of all state
tax revenues.
I. Tax Revenue (pages 656–657)
D. States require license fees for various
businesses and professions, as well as for
operating motor vehicles.
E. States impose taxes for removing natural
resources from state land or water. Many
states also have less well-known taxes, such
as a state property tax, estate taxes, and
inheritance taxes.
I. Tax Revenue (pages 656–657)
Which state taxes do you believe are the
fairest for all citizens? Which are the most
unfair? Explain.
Answers will vary. Students should
understand the principles of progressive and
regressive taxation.
II. Other Sources of Revenue (pages 657–658)
A. Since taxes finance only a part of state
government expenses, states turn to
borrowing, lotteries, and the federal
government.
B. States borrow money by selling bonds to
pay for large, long-term expenditures such
as highway construction.
C. Nearly three-fourths of the states run public
lotteries to raise revenue. Lotteries became
the fastest-growing source of state revenues
in the 1980s.
II. Other Sources of Revenue (pages 657–658)
D. The federal government provides about 20
percent of all state revenues, much in the
form of grants-in-aid, and stipulates how the
grants may be used. Categorical-formula
grants go to states on different bases,
depending on the state’s wealth.
E. During the 1980s and 1990s, the federal
government’s share of state and local
government revenues declined, but
unfunded, federally-mandated programs
increased until Congress passed the
Unfunded Mandate Reform Act (UMRA) to
curb unfunded mandates in 1995.
II. Other Sources of Revenue (pages 657–658)
Some critics claim that state lotteries
encourage gambling and that many people
who buy lottery tickets can least afford such
spending. Do you agree or disagree? Explain.
Answers will vary. The lottery is a regressive
tax. That it encourages gambling is debated.
Checking for Understanding
1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one
below to show why state officials prefer block
grants as a form of federal aid.
Cause: funds come with fewer guidelines
Checking for Understanding
Match the term with the correct definition.
___
E excise tax
A. a formal order given by a higher
authority
___
D regressive
tax
B. a sum of money given to a state for a
specific purpose
___
F progressive
tax
C. a contractual promise by a borrower
to repay a certain sum plus interest
by a specified date
___
C bond
D. tax in which people with lower
incomes pay a larger portion of their
incomes
___
B federal grant
___
A mandate
E. tax on the manufacture,
transportation, consumption, or sale
of certain items such as gasoline,
liquor, or cigarettes
F. tax based on a person’s ability to pay
Checking for Understanding
3. Identify categorical-formula grant.
Categorical-formula grants are federal funds
that go to all states on the basis of a formula
(usually based on the state’s wealth).
Checking for Understanding
4. What are the two main categories of state
tax revenue?
Two main categories of state tax revenue are
sales tax and income tax.
Critical Thinking
5. Understanding Cause and Effect How does
Congress influence state policies through its
distribution of federal grants?
by stipulating programs and goals that the
federal government believes are necessary
and by setting certain minimum standards in
the states
Public Policy Contact your state offices
or use library reference materials to find
out the major areas of your state’s
spending and the major sources of your
state’s revenue. Summarize your
information and present the data in two
circle graphs.
Reviewing Key Terms
Match the term with the correct definition.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
public utility
mandate
criminal case
initiative
civil case
F. item veto
G. regressive tax
H. intergovernmental revenue
I. bicameral
J. workers’ compensation
___
G
tax in which people with lower incomes pay a larger
portion of their incomes
___
I
two-house legislative body
___
C
one in which state brings charges against a citizen for
violating the law
___
H
revenue distributed by one level of government to
another
___
A
an organization that supplies such necessities as
electricity, gas, or telephone service
Reviewing Key Terms
Match the term with the correct definition.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
public utility
mandate
criminal case
initiative
civil case
F. item veto
G. regressive tax
H. intergovernmental revenue
I. bicameral
J. workers’ compensation
___
E
one usually involving a dispute between two or more
private individuals or organizations
___
B
a formal order given by a higher authority
___
D
a method by which citizens propose a constitutional
amendment or a law
___
J
payments people unable to work as a result of jobrelated injury or ill health receive
___
F
the power to turn down a particular item in a bill without
vetoing the entire bill
Recalling Facts
1. What is the method most states use to ratify an
amendment to a state constitution?
Most states use a popular vote to ratify an
amendment to a state constitution.
2. What are the political qualifications that a
person must meet to become governor?
A candidate should have experience serving in
state and local government and should possess
a knowledge of law.
Recalling Facts
3. What are four methods that states use to
appoint state judges?
States use popular election, election by state
legislatures, appointment by the governor, and
the Missouri Plan to appoint state judges.
4. How do states regulate public utilities?
All states regulate the rates that public utility
companies may charge customers in return for
granting the company the right to supply service
in the state or part of the state.
Recalling Facts
5. In what three ways do federal grants influence
the states?
Federal grants supply funds for programs
that states otherwise might not be able to
afford; they stimulate programs and goals
that the federal government believes are
necessary; they set certain minimum
standards in the states.
Understanding Concepts
1. Federalism In the federal system, how is
sovereign power divided among state and
federal laws and constitutions?
State laws must be consistent with the state
constitution, just as federal laws must agree
with the United States Constitution. A state
constitution cannot contain provisions that clash
with the Constitution of the United States, nor
can a state law.
Understanding Concepts
2. Separation of Powers What legislative policymaking role is a governor expected to fill?
A governor is to direct important legislation
(propose and sign legislation) and to identify
state needs.
Critical Thinking
1. Making Comparisons How do state
constitutions compare in length and detail to the
United States Constitution?
In general, state constitutions are longer and
contain much more specific detail than does the
United States Constitution.
Critical Thinking
2. Understanding Cause and Effect Use a
graphic organizer like the one below to show
why spending for education differs among
local districts.
Cause: each local district has a different
tax base that determines its ability to
support education
Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity
1. What is the subject of this cartoon?
state funding of education and schools
Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity
2. As depicted here, how are state funds allocated
to schools?
In the situation depicted in the cartoon, students
pay a meter to receive academic instruction.
Students decide how much education they will
receive by how much money they deposit in
the meter.
Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity
3. How does the cartoonist feel about the current
funding system?
Possible answer: Differences in the total amount of
spending per pupil exist among the states and among
localities within states. Differences in spending on education
between rich and poor school districts have become vast in
some states. Many state courts have claimed such
differences are unconstitutional. The cartoonist jokes about
the capability of some students to pay for their education.
Why do state governments hold the
right to issue occupational and
professional licenses?
Licenses are a form of consumer
protection, helping to ensure that people
working in various professions have the
appropriate qualifications for doing so.
1) No; there are many
different types of local
government which vary
by state and the size of
the individual
communities.
2) No; the United States
Constitution is supreme
over state constitutions
3) No; even though all states
provide for three branches
1) the voters
2) Voters elect state attorneys
general; the president of the
United States appoints the
U.S. Attorney General
3) Decisions may be
made to please the
governor rather than
the voters.
1) Mississippi and Arkansas
2) Answers will vary.
3) Possible answers may include geographical location, urban
centers, and population
1) Intergovernmental and sales taxes
3) Answers will vary.
2) education and public welfare
Creating Headlines Trace and summarize the key
points of the topics discussed in this chapter by
writing imaginary newspaper headlines. Write a few
headlines that suggest (1) how your state
government is organized and run, (2) how your state
officials administer their responsibilities, or (3) how
your state government attempts to meet the needs
and solve the problems of its citizens. Finally, write a
few headlines that suggest the role that the state
constitution plays in citizens’ daily lives. Use the
headlines as an outline for chapter review.
Understanding State Principles In Democracy in
America, French political writer Alexis de
Tocqueville (1805–1859) noted: “The great political
principles which now rule American society were
born and grew up in the state. . . . So one must
understand the state to gain the key to the rest.”
Respond to this view.
State-Supported Education The philosophical
basis for state-supported education comes from the
Northwest Ordinance (1787), which called for land
in each new state to be set aside for public schools.
“Religion, morality and knowledge being necessary
to good government and the happiness of
mankind,” the Ordinance read, “schools as the
means for education shall be forever encouraged.”
Term Limits
Candidates for Governor
A Governor’s Record
Despite the traditional argument that legislatures
benefit from having their members serve short
terms and then return to their vocations, the
increasing complexity of issues and the demands
for legislation have strengthened a trend to full-time
or professional state legislators.
A candidate for governor should wield influence in a
major political party, but needs more than the
power of the state’s party “machine” to win the
election. Most successful candidates for governor
also must have a broad political base—that is, wide
popularity among and support from certain groups
and sections of the state. In an agricultural state,
for example, support from farmers would be a vital
part of a candidate’s political base.
A governor’s record can be a great credential for
presidential candidates—but it also can be a
hindrance. In 1976, for example, Georgia governor
Jimmy Carter parlayed his state’s economic
renaissance into a successful bid for the
presidency. In 1988, George Bush blamed his
opponent, Massachusetts governor Michael
Dukakis, for the state’s high taxes and
environmental problems—a tactic that helped Bush
defeat Dukakis in the election.
People who are convicted of multiple crimes may
be required to serve the sentence for each crime
consecutively, or the judge may allow them to serve
their sentences concurrently. If a gun is used in a
crime, however, many states require a mandatory
additional sentence, to be added to the end of the
sentence for the crime itself.
More About Licenses The origin of the word
license provides an easy-to-remember definition.
License comes from the Latin lic, “to be permitted,”
and a license grants authority to do something that
otherwise would not be permitted.
Extradition
Environment
Extradition comes from a Latin term meaning “the
act of handing over.” The same Latin term—
traditio—also serves as the basis for the words
traitor and treason.
Environment is used so often that the implications
of its meaning may not be apparent. Literally,
environment refers to the concrete conditions by
which one is surrounded. Discuss the connotation
that one is “fenced in” by a physical environment—
and the fact that pollution of the environment poses
a danger that cannot easily be escaped.
The D.C. Dilemma
Washington, D.C., is neither a state nor a city—it is a
federal district under the control of Congress. The
local government has a mayor and a city council, but
Washington, D.C., is also represented in Congress
by a delegate to the House of Representatives,
although this person has no vote. Before 1961,
residents of D.C. were not allowed to vote in
presidential elections. A petition proposing that the
district be admitted to the Union as the 51st state was
filed in Congress on September 9, 1983. Today,
some groups are continuing this drive for statehood.
Conflict of Interest Consider the ethical issues
involved in having bills proposed by legislators who
are also full-time professionals in areas such as
insurance or real estate. What are some conflicts of
interest that might develop? Informally debate
methods of preventing corruption in lawmaking
based on this situation.
Court Observers For the sake of judicial discipline,
several states have volunteer court observers report
on various aspects of daily courtroom activity. Find
out how a citizen can become a court observer.
Technology Although the National Guard is not a
federal force, its units have access to the latest in
military technology. For example, members of the
National Guard may be trained to operate M-1
tanks, F-16 fighters, C-130 transports, Blackhawk
helicopters, and so on.
Elizabeth Wright-Ingraham
In 1995 the American Institute of Architects (AIA)
honored Wright-Ingraham with a fellowship,
recognizing the fact that she has “made significant
contributions to the aesthetic, scientific, and practical
efficiency of the profession; to the standards of
architectural education, training, and practice; to the
building industry through leadership of the AIA and
other related professional organizations; [and] to the
advancement of the living standards of people through
their improved environment and to society through
significant public service.”
Activity: If you held a position of influence in this
state, how might you use your “pull” to improve some
aspect of life in the state?
Minority Governors
The first female governor of a state was Nellie Tayloe
Ross of Wyoming, elected in 1924 to fill her
deceased husband’s unexpired term. The first
woman to hold a state governorship without being
preceded by her husband was Ella Grasso, who
served as governor of Connecticut from 1975 to
1980. Virginia’s Douglas Wilder, elected in 1989, was
the nation’s first African American elected governor.
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