 The revolutionary period was particularly marked in
Brittany by royalist and counter-revolutionary movements.
 The peasant rising of the so-called chouannerie against the revolution was suppressed with great barbarity, leaving a deep sense of hostility towards the central government.
 Doue ha mem Bro!

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th
grew- especially in Africa (eg Algeria), and beyond in the Pacific.
 Centralisation and the desire to impose uniformity in culture and language meant that many of the regional languages of France were neglected and despised by the authorities.


Brittany in particular with its language and specific way of life increasingly was treated as if it were an
‘internal’ colony.
 The Bretons were seen as the ‘other’, foreign but at the same time ‘French’.
 We see this ‘colonial gaze’ in the work of such artists of the 19 th century, like Paul Gauguin, who came to
Brittany to paint what seemed like an exotic culture.


‘Brittany diorama’ from the French room in the Paris
Ethnographic Museum, c 1895.


Young women in traditional costume in Pont-Aven.
Musee des Civilisations de l’Europe et de la
Mediterranee, Marseille.


Gauguin related to the Bretons in Pont-Aven (western
Brittany) in a similar way to the natives of Tahiti where he went after the 1880s.
 We can see in his work an eye for the exotic, otherness of colonised peoples.

 The beginnings of a sense of the rediscovery of Breton roots and identity can be felt at the beginning of the 19 century.
th
 The first modern dictionary of Breton by Jean-Francois
Le Gonidec 1821.
 An important year in the cultural history of Brittany was
1838 when La Villemarqué published the landmark anthology of Breton songs called the Barzaz Breiz.
 Francois-Marie Luzel-started publishing genuine folktales in Breton and many songs from rural Brittany.
 .

 1867-T. Hersart de La Villemarqué published a large anthology of ‘popular’ songs collected (he said) from the ordinary working people of Lower Brittany.
 The songs or ballads collected tell the story of the
Bretons, across the centuries.
 (Anne Auffret and Yann-Fanch Kemener).

th
 A reaction against the traditional exploitation or neglect of Brittany by the central government in Paris before and after the revolution manifested itself in varying ways.
 Eventually it took shape with the formation of the
Union Régionaliste Bretonne in 1898, which gave rise afterwards to a variety of splinter groups.

th
 At the same time, the Bretons of Lower Brittany- les
Bretons bretonnants- or Breton-speaking Bretons remained strongly Catholic, and adherred to their ethnic customs.
 The Buez ar Sent (Life of the Saints) was usually the only Breton book found in Breton homes.

Brittany in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries

Meet Becassine!

 Breton character in comic strip, who first appears in
1905.
 She is a housemaid who wears traditional Breton costume.
 She is portrayed without a mouth (usually).
 She is a stereotype Breton, and reflects the contempt shown by mainstream France to the Bretons.
 Between 1915 and 1950, 27 volumes of Becassine stories appeared.

Becassine the movie 2001

After WW1

 The Bretons paid a heavy price in WW1. The five
Breton ‘départements’ suffered immensely in the trenches.
 Approximately 200,000 Bretons died in the war (total population of Brittany 3.5 million in 1914). Brittany also saw a massive exodus from the rural villages to the cities (often Paris).
 The world of Bécassine, reflects the life of one Breton internal ‘immigrant’ to the big cities of France.

 The wartime experiences of Breton soldiers and sailors had a contradictory affect on Franco-Breton relations.
For many Bretons service in the trenches of Verdun or on the Marne was their first exposure to the France and French of other regions. Most of the veterans found the bounds of their patriotism now extended beyond the borders of their native province..

 Contact with the broader French society also accelerated a decline in the use of Breton and Gallo dialects. Others saw Brittany’s disproportionate share of the national sacrifice as proof that in the eyes of
Paris, they were ignorant peasants fit only for service as cannon fodder.
 Prejudice towards Bretons remained strong. Voyage
au bout de la nuit by Céline.

 After the WW1 several movements which sought some form of autonomy or even separation from France emerged.
 The influence of the Easter Uprising in Dublin
(1916) was important.
 This same period saw a period of instability in France with the ideological confrontation between the left and the right. Also between the church and secular society.

 In 1911 the Breton Nationalist Party (PNB) was formed
(Strollad Broadel Breiz).
 Brittany was during this period plagued by a tendency to split into various nationalist factions none of which were able to command a large popular following.
 Writing in Breton saw a remarkable renaissance during the post WW1 period.

 Literature in Breton had seen a certain form of renaissance in the latter part of the 19 th century, but it was dominated by the church, priests and abbots in particular.
 In the post WW1 period a new literary journal made its first appearance- Gwalarn- and brought together a new secular generation of younger writers led by Roparzh Hemon seeking to create a new European style literature in the Breton language.

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He was the author of numerous dictionaries, grammars, poems, novels and short stories. He also founded Gwalarn, a literary journal in Breton where many young authors published their first writings during the 1920s and 1930s.
Highly controversial figure, despite his undoubted contribution to Breton literature.
He was in charge of the Breton language programmes from
Radio Rennes/Roazhon during the war.
Sentenced to one year’s prison, and ten years ‘indignité nationale’.

 The Breton nationalists in the late 20s and early 30s were mainly non-separatist. But they felt that despite their sacrifice during the WW1, they had not been rewarded with some measure of autonomy, but continued to be the victims of France’s centralist
(‘jacobin’) and assimilatory policies towards its ethnic minorities.’Pour l’unite de la France, il faut que le
breton meure’ (1920s)

 Although the nationalists were always relatively small as a political force, the tendency to split into factions was always present.


The creation of a more ‘extremist’ party- the PND
(Parti national breton)- led to some direct yet symbolic action.
In 1932, the 400 th anniversary of the 1532 Act of Union.



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A short time before the president of France reached Rennes for the ceremony, the statue that had stood there for some years representing
Duchess Anne and the king of France was blown up by a group known as Gwenn ha Du.
Some nationalists in the late 30s became pro-
German, supporting the actions of the Nazis before the outbreak of WW2.
Some of the nationalists declared that no Bretons should be called up by France in the event of war against Germany.

 Gwenn ha Du was the unofficial military wing of the
PNB. It was modelled on the IRA.
 Mainly small-scale explosions, and arson.
 The last attack was probably in 1941 in Carhaix
(Karaes). They collaborated with the Germans in their desire to have Brittany recognised.
 Some went on to form the Bezen Perrot.(1943-44)
 After the war some members formed the 1960s group
Front de la Liberation de la Bretagne (FLB).

Bretonische Waffenverband der SS.


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
Collaborationist militia wore German uniform (Bretonische
Waffenband des SS).
The group was originally called Bezen Cadoudal (after the anti-Jacobin Breton member of the chouannerie), but was renamed after the assassination of Abbe Perrot (a Breton nationalist and right-wing Catholic) who was assassinated by Communist members of the resistance. (December
1943).
He was the editor of a Catholic journal in Breton. Yet he was suspected of German sympathies. He supported the
PNB.

 In 1939, the Breton nationalist journal Breiz Atao was seized and closed, and the PNB became an illegal organisation and was disolved.
 A small group from the PNB made what would be a fateful step. Olivier Mordrel and Debeauvais fled to Begium and then to Germany where they hoped to convince the German authorities to give
Brittany autonomy in the event of German occupation of France.

 This attempt to ensure a measure of independence for
Brittany had terrible consequences after the war.
 The Nazi occupiers did eventually outline a plan which would, amongst other things, create a separate Breton state.Goering and other elements of the Nazi military saw this as part of a general plan to dismember France as a political unity.

 However this intention was rejected after the
Franco-German armistice in 1940. (the Vichy regime).
 The Olivier and Debauvais faction worked against the Vichy government and try to convince the
Germans that in the ‘New Europe’, Brittany should be a separate political entity. The Germans however are not interested in this idea, although they are tolerated and saw the Breton nationalists as a useful group as a rear-guard in case of invasion by the allies.

 In fact, this pro-German, even pro-Vichy nationalist party was supported only by a small proportion of the
Bretons, (perhaps no more than c80 active members).
The vast majority (notwithstanding certain collaborators as in the rest of France) were pro-French, as is shown by the massive support of Bretons for De
Gaulle’s Free French movement.

 Internal disputes among the party leadership, the loyalty which most Bretons showed (after the 16 th century) towards the French State, and bitter fighting between collaborators and résistants, finally destroyed this distorted vision of an independent Brittany and tarnished the reputation of its advocates.

 By 1944, the PNB was a spent force. As the WW2 drew to an end, German presence in Brittany did not last long, given the rapid invasion in
Normandy and Brittany.
 Yet, most unfortunately, the actions of a tiny minority (PNB) brought about a severe backlash against all Breton cultural activity.
 The climate of revenge throughout France against collaborators left the Breton cultural movement in tatters.

 A native Breton speaker, he trained as a primary school teacher but in his early twenties joined the separatist Bezen
Perrot militia (1943–44), for which he was sentenced to death in absentia at a court martial by the post-WWII
French government, but eventually amnestied in 1967.
 After studying mathematics and physics at theUniversity of
Marburg, he arrived in Ireland in 1950. He continued his studies atUniversity College, Galway, and, on graduation, joined the Irish Meteorology Service, becoming a naturalised Irish citizen in 1955.

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There was for this reason a mass abandonment of
Breton culture and language after the WW2.
Many cultural organisations were disbanded. For a while, the Breton language was prohibited from newspapers, and publications in the language stopped.
All school courses which contained Breton classes were eliminated.
Radio programmes in Breton (Radio-Rennes) came to an end. They had been run by Roparzh Hemon who was arrested.

 Many Breton nationalists (or merely Breton cultural activists) were arrested. (c3000).
 The Breton writer and activist Roparzh Hemon was originally condemned to a prison sentence with hard labour, which (after international coverage) was commuted to a short sentence followed by voluntary exile (he spent the rest of his life in Ireland).
 Many Bretons left Brittany and relocated to several countries including Canada (especially Montreal).

 In a school system which for several decades after
WW2 had totally rejected the use of Breton, it comes as no surprise that the numbers of Breton speakers by the 1960-1980s had dropped to c600,000 or much less..
 What was clear was that after WW2, and the catastrophe caused to the Breton movement and because of perceptions of the language and its culture, parents did not teach the language to their children. ‘cessation in language transmission’).

Breton Dutch
Occitan
Basque Catalan
Franco-Provencal
Alsatien

 There has now been national recognition of local cultural aspirations.
 No longer are children severly punished at school for speaking Breton (the ‘symbole’).
 Funds have been made available through ‘la Charte culturelle’ to promote the work of university teachers and scolarly societies in researching Breton history, language and traditions.

 For years France's regional languages were seen by
Paris as a taboo that threatened national unity and should be repressed - children were punished for speaking Breton in the playground, banned from speaking Occitan in southern schools or Alsatian dialect in the east.
 Before 1930 one in four French people spoke a regional language to their parents; that figure has nose-dived.

 The status of the Breton language took an unusual turn in
May 2008, as a proposed amendment to the French
Constitution was voted for by the French National
Assembly in Paris.
The amendment states that the 'regional' languages of
France are part of the heritage of France, but the new amendment will only apply to Article 1 of the Constitution and not the much disputed Article 2, which states that the language of France is French. The amendment has therefore received only a lukewarm response by Breton nationalist parties like the Union Démocratique Bretonne, because of its restricted nature.


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The first Diwan Breton-medium school was created by a few parents in 1977 near Brest because the centralized
French state schools were unwilling to offer the Breton language in the curriculum. The initial nursery school was followed by the first primary school in 1980, the first collège in 1988 and the first lycée in 1994.
In 2003-2004, 2.761 pupils attended Diwan schools throughout Brittany at all levels from preschool to the
Baccalaureat. A Diwan preschool opened in Paris in
September 2004. The network included 35 primary-level schools as of the start of the academic year 2007.

Compare this with:
Ysgolion Meithrin (Wales)
Gaelscoileanna (Ireland)
Ikastolak (Basque Country )

 (does not include “Roazhoneg”)

 Expressions of Breton identity and culture are not strongly expressed in political terms but rather in cultural terms, at both the popular and high-brow levels.
 The continuing popularity of Breton ‘pardons’ (saints’ days). Here it is common to see still the very rich traditional dress of both men and women:

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Massive changes in rural Brittany since the end of
WW2, in such areas as the pays Bigoudenn (SW) means that wihtin a couple of generations language and custom has radically changed.
This rapid change is graphically described in the work of Per-Jakez Helias (Pierre-Jacques Helias) in his award-winning book Le cheval d’orgueil
(originally written in Breton- Marc’h ar
Lorc’h).1975.
PJH was himself from the Bigoudenn area of rural
Brittany.

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The best known Breton musical festivals are the fest-noz (evening-party).
Wherever Breton are to be found, a fest-noz will be organized (Paris, Montreal, New-York…and
Brittany).
The fest-noz is a traditional music and dance evening (dating back to the 1950s) but immensely popular.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXax9p9rmag
&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZC6ejVXSVPI
&feature=related



The Festival Interceltique de Lorient (fr) or
Gouelioù Etrekeltiek An Oriant (br) was founded in Lorient, Brittany in 1971 by Polig
Montjarret. This annual gathering takes place in the heart of the city every August and features
Celtic traditional, classical, folk, jazz androck musicians, singers,dancers, painters, sculptors, writers and other artists.
They come fromBrittany, Cornwall,Wales,
Ireland,Scotland, theIsle of Man, Cape
BretonIsland, Galicia, and the entire Celtic diaspora.

 The twentieth and twenty-first century have seen some of the best writing ever in the Breton language.


This continues today, despite the falling numbers of native-traditional speakers (but happily the numbers of those who learn Breton at school or elsewhere increases all the time).
The best place to find an entry into Breton literature is The Turn of the Ermine: An
Anthology of Breton Literature, selected and edited by Jacqueline Gibson and Gwyn Griffiths,
2006.

 An Taol Lagad- television news in Breton
 http://jt.france3.fr/regions/popup.php?id=l35b_locale

 Music in Breton: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HpycKwAb0rM&feature=related
 Breton dance:
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dgWcNwzucaM

 Bombarde and biniou
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rDwfBx2MzYc&feature=related
 Bagad
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bMwInVN56Gg&feature=related
 Alan Stivell
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PRpNVMjnDmY
 Denez Prigent
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5TnUodKx6LY