A Brief History of
History and
Governments in
Russia
By Mr. Belter
The Russian Empire
Main Idea Strong leaders made
Russia a vast empire, but
widespread suffering eventually
led to revolution.
Geography and You What causes
people to rise up and overthrow
their government? Read on to
learn about Russia’s history up to
the time of the Russian
Revolution.
The Beginning
Russia today is a vast country, covering
millions of square miles and spreading
across two continents. This world
power, however, began as a small trade
center.
Early Russia
Modern Russians descend from Slavic
peoples who settled along the rivers of what
are today Ukraine and Russia. During the
a.d. 800s, these early Slavs built a
civilization around the city of Kiev (Kyiv),
today the capital of Ukraine. This
civilization, called Kievan Rus
(KEE∙eh∙vuhn ROOS), prospered from river
trade between Scandinavia and the
Byzantine Empire.
Religion
In a.d. 988 the people of Kievan Rus
converted to Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
Missionaries, or people who move to
another area to spread their religion,
brought this form of Christianity from the
Byzantine Empire to Kievan Rus. The
missionaries also brought a written
language.
Moscow
In the 1200s, Mongol warriors from Central
Asia conquered Kievan Rus. Under Mongol
rule, Kiev lost much of its power. Many
Slavs moved northward and built
settlements. One new settle ment was the
small trading post of Moscow.
Ivan the Great
a new Slavic territory called Muscovy
(muh∙SKOH∙vee). In 1480 Ivan III, a prince
of Muscovy, rejected Mongol rule and
declared independence. Because he was a
strong ruler, Ivan became known as “Ivan
the Great.”
Revolution
Several times during Russia’s history, the
country’s cold climate and huge size proved
to be strong defenses against invasion. In
1812 a French army led by Napoleon
Bonaparte invaded Russia. To conquer
Russia, the French forces had to march
hundreds of miles and capture Moscow.
Czar Alexander II
In the late 1800s, Russia entered a period of
great change. In 1861 Czar Alexander II
freed the country’s 40 million serfs.
Freedom did not release them from poverty,
however. Alexander began to modernize
Russia’s economy, building industries and
expanding railroads. Despite these changes,
most Russians remained poor, and unrest
spread among workers and peasants.
World War I
In 1914 Russia joined France and Britain to
fight Germany and Austria in World War I.
Poorly prepared, Russia suffered military
defeats, losing millions of men between
1914 and 1916. Many Russians blamed
Czar Nicholas II for the country’s poor
performance in the war and for food
shortages. In early 1917 the people staged a
revolution that forced the czar to step down
from the throne.
Vladimir Lenin 1917
Later that year, Vladimir Lenin led a second
revolt that overthrew the temporary
government. He set about establishing a
communist state in which the government
controlled the economy and society.
Fearing invasion, Lenin also moved
Russia’s capital from
The Rise and Fall of
Communism
What would it be like if the government told
you what job you had to do and also greatly
limited the choices of products you could
buy in stores? Read to learn about the
changes that the Communist government
brought to Russia.
Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (U.S.S.R.),
Vladimir Lenin and his followers created a
new nation called the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.), or the Soviet
Union. This nation included 15 republics
made up of different ethnic groups.
Karl Marx
Lenin followed the ideas of a German
political thinker named Karl Marx. Marx
believed that industrialization created an
unjust system in which factory owners held
great power, while the workers held very
little. Lenin said that he wanted to make
everyone in Soviet society more equal.
Joseph Stalin
Lenin’s policies were later continued by
Joseph Stalin, who ruled the Soviet Union
after Lenin’s death in 1924. A harsh
dictator, Stalin prevented the Soviet people
from practicing their religions and had
religious property seized. His secret police
killed or imprisoned anyone who disagreed
with his policies.
Agriculture and Industry
Soviet leaders set up a command economy in
which the government ran all areas of
economic life. They decided what crops
farmers should grow and what goods
factories should produce.
Leaders also introduced collectivization— a
system in which small farms were
combined into large, factory like farms run
by the government. Government leaders
hoped these farms would be more efficient
The Soviet economic plans had
mixed success.
The new farms were inefficient and did not
produce enough food for the Soviet people.
Industrial production was more successful.
Huge factories produced steel, machinery,
and military equipment. Strict government
control, however, had drawbacks. The
government eliminated, or did away with,
competition, allowing only certain factories
to make certain goods. This led to a lack of
efficiency and poor-quality goods.
Soviet Power
In 1941, during World War II, Germany
invaded the Soviet Union. The Soviets
joined Great Britain and the United States to
defeat the Germans. About 20 to 30 million
Russian soldiers and civilians died in the
war.
Cold War
The Soviet Union and the United States were
allies during the war but became bitter
rivals after it. From the late 1940s until
about 1990, these superpowers, the two
most powerful nations in the world,
engaged in a struggle for world influence.
Because the struggle never became “hot,”
with actual combat between the two
opponents, the conflict became known as
the Cold War.
NATO
Each superpower became the center of a
group of nations. Members of each group
pledged to come to one another’s aid if a
member country were attacked by a
country from the other group. The United
States was the chief member of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO,
Warsaw Pact
The Soviet Union led the Warsaw Pact, a
group of Communist countries that
included most of Eastern Europe.
Shortages
The Soviet Union and the United States
competed to produce military weapons and
to explore outer space. With so many
resources going to the military, the Soviet
people had to endure shortages of basic
goods, such as food and cars. By the 1980s,
many Soviets were ready for change.
Attempts at Reform
In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev (mih∙KAH∙eel
gawr∙buh∙CHAWF) became the Soviet
leader. He quickly began a number of
reforms in the Soviet Union. Under the
policy of glasnost (GLAZ∙nohst), or
“openness,”
rebuilding
Soviet citizens could say and write about
what they thought without fear of being
punished. Another policy, known as
perestroika (pehr∙uh∙STROY∙kah), or
“rebuilding,” aimed at boosting the Soviet
economy. It gave factory managers more
freedom to make economic decisions and
encouraged the creation of small, privately
owned businesses.
The End
Instead of strengthening the country,
Gorbachev’s policies made the Soviet
people doubt communism even more. Huge
protests against Soviet control arose across
Eastern Europe. By 1991 all of the region’s
Communist governments had fallen.
Collapse of the Soviet Union
As communism ended in Eastern Europe, the
Soviet Union faced growing unrest among
its ethnic groups. Gorbachev was criticized
both by hard-liners who wished to maintain
Communist rule as well as by reformers.
The hard-liners wanted to stop changes.
The reformers, on the other hand, felt that
Gorbachev was not making changes fast
enough.
The reformers
were led by a rising politician named Boris
Yeltsin (buhr∙YEES YEHLT∙suhn). He
became the president of Russia,
The Last Stand
In August 1991, hard-line Communists
attempted a coup (KOO), an overthrow of
the government by military force. Boris
Yeltsin called on the people to resist.
Ethnic Unrest
Challenges also came from some ethnic
minorities. In the Chechnya
(chehch·NYAH) region, a group trying to
separate from Russia waged a bloody civil
war.
The city of Grozny during the
First Chechen War (1994-1996)
Cultures and Lifestyles
Russia has many different ethnic groups and
religions. As the Russian Empire expanded,
different peoples came under its control.
Today dozens of ethnic groups live in
Russia. Many of these groups speak their
own language and have their own culture.
Most people, however, speak Russian, the
country’s official language.
Ethnic Groups
Russians, or Slavs who descended from the people
of Muscovy, are the largest ethnic group. They
live throughout Russia, although most Russians
live west of the Urals. The next-largest groups
include Tatars, who are Muslim descendants of
the Mongols, and Ukrainians, who are
descendants of Slavs that settled the area around
Kiev (Kyiv). Smaller ethnic groups include the
Yakut, who herd reindeer and also raise horses
and cattle in eastern Siberia.
religion
Under communism, Russia’s people were not
allowed to practice religion. The Soviet
government officially promoted the
position in its schools that there is no god
or other supreme being.
The Arts
Russia has a rich tradition of literature, art,
and music. Early Russians developed a
strong oral tradition, or passing stories by
word of mouth from generation to
generation. Later, many writers and
musicians drew on these stories or on folk
music for their works. The Russian
people’s strong sense of nationalism, or
feelings of loyalty toward their country, is
reflected in many artistic works.
Leo Tolstoy
The 1800s are often
called the “golden
age” of Russian
literature. During this
period, Leo Tolstoy,
one of the greatest
Russian writers, wrote
War and Peace.
Scientific Advances
For decades, the Soviet Union emphasized
education in the sciences. As a result, Russia has
many scientists, mathematicians, and doctors.
During the Cold War, Russian scientists helped
the Soviet Union compete with the United States
in space exploration. In 1961 Russian Yuri
Gagarin was the first person to fly in space. Since
1998 the Russians have joined with Americans
and people from other countries in building the
International Space Station.
Everyday Life
Most Russians live in cities located west of
the Ural Mountains. City residents generally
live in large apartment buildings rather than
in single-family houses. Housing is scarce
and often expensive. For this reason,
grandparents, parents, and children
frequently share the same apartment or
house.
Sports
Today, Russian hockey players, figure
skaters, and gymnasts are strong
competitors in international events.
Russian ballet
Is also imporant
Holidays
Russians celebrate several holidays. The
newest holiday, Independence Day, falls on
June 12 and marks Russia’s declaration of
autonomy, or independence from the
Soviet Union. New Year’s Eve is one of
the most festive holidays. Russian children
decorate a fir tree and exchange presents
with others in their families. In the spring,
Russians celebrate Maslenitsa.
Transportation and
Communications
Russia is so large that people and goods must
often be transported over great distances.
Railroads were the primary means of
transportation during the Soviet era and are
still important today. The heavily populated
area west of the Urals is covered by an
extensive railroad network.
Trans-Siberian Railroad
This railroad system is linked to the famed
Trans-Siberian Railroad, which runs from
Moscow in the west to Vladivostok in the
east. Completed in the early 1900s, it is the
longest rail line in the world. The railroad
made it possible for Russians to exploit, or
use, Siberia’s natural resources.
Summary: The Russian Empire
● Russia had its beginnings in small trading centers
built by Slavic peoples.
● Rulers known as czars governed the Russian
Empire from 1547 to 1917.
● The czars expanded Russian territory to reach
from Europe to the Pacific Ocean.
● Revolutions in 1917 overthrew the czar and
brought the Communists to power.
The Soviet
Union
● Under the Communist Party, the
government ran all areas of economic life.
● After World War II, the Soviet Union and
the United States became bitter rivals.
The Rise of Democracy
● In 1991 the Soviet Union broke up into
Russia and other independent republics.
● Russia has struggled to build a democracy
and a market economy.
People and Culture
● Russia has many different ethnic groups.
● Russians practice a number of different
religions, but most of the population is
Eastern Orthodox Christian.
● Russian artists, musicians, and writers often
used themes based on Russian history.
Life in Russia
● Most Russians live in apartments in large
cities rather than in single-family homes.
● Railroads link heavily populated European
Russia with sparsely settled Siberia.
● Russia is working to improve its highway
and communications systems.
Russia Today
Regions Since the fall of the Soviet Union, Russia
has been struggling to build a democracy and a
free market economy. It also has sought to
regain its influence in world affairs. Such
major changes are difficult, however, and the
world will watch with great interest as Russia
works to become a successful democratic
nation. Why is the success of democracy in
Russia important to the rest of the world?
Changing Politics
and Society
Main Idea The fall of communism led to great
changes in Russia’s government, economy,
and society.
Geography and You Can you imagine having
to completely change your way of life?
Read to learn how Russians faced that
situation in the early 1990s.
Section 1:
A Changing Russia BIG IDEA Geographers
organize the Earth into regions that share
common characteristics. New democratic
institutions and a free market economy link
the different parts of Russia. These positive
changes, however, are threatened by the
government’s abuse of power, the spread of
corruption in business, and a decline in
population.
Russia is still adjusting
to the changes that occurred in the 1990s.
When communism fell in 1991, Russia was
forced to build a new government and
economy. These ongoing changes continue
to greatly affect the everyday lives of the
Russian people.
A New Form of Government
The Communist Party ruled Russia when it
was part of the Soviet Union. The
Communists did not allow people to
challenge their power, and everyday
citizens had no voice in choosing their
leaders. After the fall of communism, In a
1993 election, Russian voters approved a
new constitution and elected members of a
legislature to represent them. however,
Russia became more democratic.
Russia’s official name
is the Russian Federation. This name reflects
the fact that Russia comprises, or is made
up of, many different regions and territories.
A New Economic System
As part of the Soviet Union, Russia had a command
economy. In a command economy, the central
government makes all the economic decisions.
Since the fall of communism, Russia has
attempted to shift to a market economy. To create
a market economy, the government introduced
privatization (pry∙vuh∙tuh∙ZAY∙shuhn). This is
the transfer of ownership of businesses from the
government to individuals. In the new system,
businesses have to compete with one another.
Changes in Society
With the end of Communist rule, the
government loosened its control on Russian
society. Many different political parties
were able to organize. Russians were
allowed to criticize leaders and their
policies. Additionally, the government no
longer controlled the content of news
reports or books.
Russia’s new economy
led to the spread of consumerism—the desire
to buy goods. Russians eagerly sought
goods they had not been able to buy for
years. Businesses prospered, and a Russian
middle class emerged. This term refers to a
social group that is neither very rich nor
poor, but has enough money to buy cars,
new clothing, electronics, and other luxury
items.
skilled Russian workers
still face underemployment, which means
they are forced to take jobs that require
lesser skills than they have. Many people
must work second jobs to survive.
The unsettled economy is also difficult for
pensioners (PEHN∙shuh∙nuhrs). Pensioners
are people who receive regular payments
from the government because they are too
old or too sick to work.
The Moscow Region Moscow
is the political, economic, and transportation center
of Russia. A large amount of manufacturing takes
place in or near Moscow. Under Soviet rule, most
of Russia’s factories focused on heavy industry,
or the production of goods such as machinery,
mining equipment, and steel. After communism’s
fall, more factories shifted to light industry, or
the production of consumer goods, such as
clothing and household products. High technology
and electronics industries have also developed in
Moscow.
St. Petersburg and the Baltic
Region
Located near the Baltic Sea, St. Petersburg is
an important trading center. A high volume,
or amount, of goods passes through its port.
The city is also a major industrial center.
Factories here make machinery, ships,
automobiles, and other items. St. Petersburg
relies on other regions for food, fuel, and
other resources.
The Volga and Urals Region
The Volga and Urals region lies south and
east of Moscow. It is a major center of
manufacturing and farming. The Volga
River is vital to these economic activities.
This 2,300-mile (3,701-km) waterway
carries nearly half of Russia’s river traffic.
The Volga River also supplies water for
hydroelectric power and for irrigation.
Farmers in the region grow large amounts
of wheat, sugar beets, and other crops.
Siberia Siberia’s
cold Arctic winds, rugged landscapes, and frozen
ground make it difficult to take advantage of the
region’s many resources. The lands of Siberia hold
valuable deposits of iron ore, uranium, gold, and
coal. Timber from the sprawling taiga is also an
important resource for Russia. Since resources in
other parts of the world are being used up,
Russia’s economic future may depend on its
ability to make use of Siberia’s resources.
Section 2: Issues and Challenges
BIG IDEA Geography is used to interpret the past,
understand the present, and plan for the future. The
change to democracy and a market economy has been
difficult for Russia because of its long history of allpowerful governments. The country also faces challenges
from ethnic groups that want independence.
What do you think
is the most popular possession in Russia? A
car? A computer? No, it is most likely a cell
phone. The popularity of cell phones has
skyrocketed in Russia. Russia has a growing
middle class with money to spend.
Political and Economic
Challenges
Main Idea Russians face many challenges as
they try to build a democracy and a
market economy.
Geography and You Do you think a country
needs strong leaders to solve serious
problems? Can leaders become too strong?
Read to learn about growing challenges to
Russia’s democracy and free market
economy.
Roadblocks to Democracy
Becoming truly democratic has not been easy
for Russia. Confusion over governmental
powers is one problem. For example, the
Russian president’s power to issue
decrees—rulings that have the force of law
but do not need the approval of the
legislature— might make that office too
strong.
Shifting to a Market Economy
Russia’s shift to a free market economy has
brought many positive changes. New
companies have been started, and some
personal incomes have risen. Higher prices
for Russia’s oil and natural gas exports have
brought the country more income.
Shifting to a Market Economy
Economic success, however, has brought an
increase in crime and business corruption. A
small group of people, often referred to as
oligarchs, control various parts of the
economy. An oligarch (AH∙luh∙gahrk) is a
member of a small group of rulers that
holds great power.
deposit insurance
Many Russians, however, do not trust the
country’s banks. To encourage people to
save their money, the government created a
deposit insurance system, which will repay
people who deposit their money in a bank if
the bank goes out of business.
Challenges to National Unity
When the Soviet Union fell, several ethnic
groups in Russia saw a chance for
independence. They launched separatist
movements, campaigns to break away from
the national government and form
independent countries.
Russia and the World
As a major world power, Russia plays an
important role in world affairs. In recent
years, it has worked to strengthen ties with
other countries. Russia sees the war in
Chechnya, for example, as a struggle
against terrorism. As a result, it agreed in
2002 to support the United States and other
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
countries in fighting global terrorist
activities.
Terms
1. Capitalist System
free enterprise; if you work hard you
can get ahead; you can start your
own business and become a
millionaire, or lose every penny
2. Socialist
a person who wants to change
society
Terms
3. Communist System
everyone works to his or her ability and
receives according to his or her need;
totally economic equality; no one gets
ahead, but no one starves either.
4. Czarist Government
a government ruled by a Czar, who had
absolute powers similar to a king
Terms
5. Deported
sent away from a country into exile
6. Idealistic
overly optimistic thinking
7. Totalitarianism
a one-party-rules-everything type of
government
A Brief History
In the mid 1800’s , the
capitalist system was
going strong in Europe
and America.
But, the profits of businesses came at the expense
of workers who labored 14 to 18 hours a day
under unsafe conditions. There were no child
labor laws, and wages were barely livable for the
common worker.
Highways and Telephones
Under communism most people did not own
cars, therefore extensive highways were not
needed.
Also, most people did not have phones so
since the 1990’s Russia has been working to
build a modern telecommunication systems
not and an extensive highway system, since
car ownership is increasing.
This diagram from
1867 perfectly
illustrates the
inherent genius
within the capitalist
system and how it
is indestructible: it
has a strong base
built on inequality.
Like the ancient
pyramids of Egypt,
the capitalist
system is based
upon the pyramid
shape which yields
great unknown
powers and like
those great historic
monuments, was
built from the
sweat and blood of
slaves. If we stay
strong the
capitalism will stay
with us for
thousands of years
to come just like
the great pyramids.
A Brief History…
In 1847, an
international
workers’ group asked
Karl Marx, a
German philosopher,
to draw up a plan for
their organization.
The group was called
the Communist
League. Marx wrote
a plan called The
Manifesto of the
Communist Party.
A Brief History…
Marx envisioned a workers’
revolt followed by a kind
of paradise where each
person would work
according to his or her
ability and receive
according to his or her
need. Marx saw the final
stage of his communist
system being total
worldwide economic
equality.
A Brief History…
About this time, labor laws were
passed in Western Europe and
America that made the work
place more safer and more
tolerable of workers. The
worldwide revolution that Marx
foresaw never came to pass.
A Brief History…
The people that followed Marx’s thinking were
called Socialists. The Socialists split into two
groups.
The milder group wanted to bring about
communism slowly by passing new laws.
The other group (we’ll call them Communists)
stuck to Marx’s original idea of a major worker
revolt. The Communists were a small extremist
group compared to the total number of
Socialists. They formed a political party called
the Bolshevik Party , which was led by a man
named Nikolai Lenin .
A Brief History…
Russia at this time was being
poorly managed by a
Czarist government, ruled
by Czar Nicholas II .
Most of the Russian
people were still underpaid
workers on land owned by
a small number of wealthy
landlords.
A Brief History…
In 1917 a revolution occurred in
Russia. The Bolshevik Party
successfully overthrew Czar
Nicholas II. Besides Lenin, there
were two other men who were
leaders in the
Bolshevik party: Leon Trotsky , a
man who believed in using
terrorism, and Joseph Stalin, a
strong ruthless man.
A Brief History…
In 1926, Lenin died, and there was a power struggle
between Trotsky and Stalin. Stalin gained control
and Trotsky went to Mexico and was later
assassinated. As the new Russian leader, Stalin
deported to Siberia all those who did not agree
with him. His secret police also used random
arrests, torture, and mass executions to maintain
his dictatorship. Anyone could be a victim of these
killings, or “purges” for no apparent reason.
A Brief History…
The idealistic goals of Marx, had turned into a
system that was in many ways more
terrifying than the rule by the Czars. There
was no freedom in the new system, which
was based on military rule. Forced labor
created wealth for a limited few, while the
lives of most people changed very little or
got worse. Terrorist police prevented
uprisings by unhappy people.
A Brief History…
The communist type of
government that came
about after the
revolution in 1917
was “totalitarian”.
Totalitarianism is
when one party or
group has total
control of everything.
The
End
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