Emergence of Professionalism,1783-1860
Dr. Gregory S. Hospodor
CGSC, Department of Military History
gregory.hospodor@us.army.mil
Time of Revolutionary Change: America in
1790 and 1850
I.
Demographic Revolution
II. Political Revolution
III. Market Revolution
IV. Transportation Revolution
V. Communication Revolution
Theme: You might think about quickly setting the
background within which the US military operated during
the period.
Relevance: Is change occurring at a faster or slower rate now
than then? What are the implications for the Army you
will serve in? How do militaries adapt during rapidly
changing times? Recent—Combined-ops to full-spectrum
ops. How did the antebellum US Army adapt during its
own period of rapid change? Are the officers then that
different than you?
Demographic Revolution
1770 2,205,000
1790 3,929,214
3.7 million rural
1850 23,191,876 19.6 million rural
2.2 million immigrant
.7 million urban
3.2 million urban
Territory (land and water in square miles)
1790 888,811
.22 sq. miles per person
1850 2,992,747
.13 sq. miles per person
1851 13 states in 1790
30 states in 1850
$1.15 billion in national wealth
$293 per capita
$7.16 billion in national wealth
$308 per capita
Political Revolution
Market Revolution
Transportation Revolution
1800
1860
Communication Revolution
Hey,
American
Army…..
You’ve just defeated the
greatest army in the world.
And you’ve made Mel Gibson a
national hero…
Sure, you needed help from the snotty French. But
now you can relax.
Now you can have some fun now that the parent
(nation) is not around.
Now you drink imported tea, guilt-free.
Now you can wait patiently for the next British
Invasion (in 1964)
Now comes
Miller time…
It’s 1783. What should the military strategy of the young United States be?
Army Problems?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Funding
Composition
Mission
British
Indians
Leadership
(Civilian/Military)
Sentiments on a Peace
Establishment—1783
1) Small regular army (2,631)
2) Militia
a. Federal
standardization
b. Volunteer and
Common militia
3) Federal arsenals and
factories
4) Military Academies
“… Regular Troops alone are
equal to the exigencies of
modern war, as well as for
defense as offence, and
whenever a substitute is
attempted it must prove
illusory and ruinous”
George Washington
15 September 1780
“Standing armies in time of
peace are inconsistent with
the principles of republican
government.”
The Confederation Congress
2 June 1784
A standing army as a political issue.
Militia vs. Professional Standing Army
Why were folks concerned about this? --- Power; just fought a Revolution
Why was a militia considered a better fighting force despite evidence to the
contrary? ---motivated by love of freedom rather than pay; self-interest; civic virtue
Events that worked against a decent sized standing army:
1.Newburgh Conspiracy (winter 1782-1783) a great story with tons of leadership
potential
2.Society of the Cincinnati (1783) membership hereditary
3.Philadelphia Riots (1783)
4.Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
5.Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) Quasi-War with France
6.Political Ideology and Party Politics: Nationalism (Alexander Hamilton—
Federalists) vs Republicanism (Jeffersonian Republicans)
Nationalists were petrified by Shays’ Rebellion (1786-1787); Washington, who
didn’t frighten easily, was “mortified beyond expression.” Crisis atmosphere—led
to Constitutional Convention.
Constitution stuck a balance regarding military power—the fear remained.
Washington’s War: 1790-1795
•
Confederation of Miami, Shawnee,
Delaware, and Wyandot Indians
– Defending the Ohio Country encouraged
by the British
– Led by Blue Jacket of the Shawnee and
Little Turtle of the Miami
•
•
•
•
•
Battle of Kekionga (Harmar’s defeat) –
20-22 October 1790
Battle of the Wabash (St. Clair’s defeat) –
4 November 1791
Wayne placed in command - organizes
“Legion of the United States”
Victory at Fallen Timbers on 20 August
1794
Treaty of Grenville - 3 August 1795
Washington to St. Clair: "Trust not the Indian; leave
not your arms for the moment; and when you halt
for the night be sure to fortify your camp. Again and
again, General: Beware of surprise!"
Henry Knox of MA, Secretary of War and Chief Little Turtle
War with the Indians brings up the question of a standing army!
“the Constitution certainly never contemplated a Standing Army in time of
Peace”
Sen. William Maclay
Republican Defense Policy:
Jefferson Administration (1800-1808)
Hippies or Pragmatists?
• Reduce standing Army
(budget)
• Establish USMA at West
Point & “Republican-ize”
officer corps
• Create Gunboat Navy;
“Mosquito Fleet”
• Build stone masonry
fortresses along the coast
• Economic sanctions in
response to British outrages
Ft. Moultrie, SC
Ft. Jackson, LA
Coastal Defenses
Ft. McHenry, MD
Ft. Monroe, VA
Reality intrudes!
T.J. and the Pirates
Toward the War of 1812
After 1803, Britain and
France are once again at
war.
The British blockade
Europe and forbid any
neutral ships to trade in
European ports. U.S. ships
are treated by British as
hostile vessels. British
board and sink U.S. ships.
French also treat U.S. ships
as enemy.
War of 1812
Causes:
• Impressment
• Indian Problems
• British forts on the Ohio frontier
• War Hawks want to annex Canada
• Americans tired of being pushed around.
Problems
• U.S. unprepared for war. 6,000 soldiers and 18
war ships. British have 600 ships, 250,000
soldiers.
• Most of the U.S. army in the West, war is in the
East.
• Lack a coherent strategy
Endstate?
Strategy?
The War of 1812
Battle of Chippewa, July 5, 1814
“Those are regulars, by God!”
The White House
Ft. McHenry
Francis Scott Key
Hartford Convention, 1814
The Battle of New Orleans—8 January 1815
Andrew Jackson
British
Americans
385 killed /1,186 wounded/ 484 captured/
13 killed/ 58 wounded/ 30 captured/
Total:2,055
Total: 101
Treaty of Ghent
Break
American Military Leadership:
“Old Hickory” or “Fuss and Feathers”?
What is a Professional?
Professionalism
Professional attributes include the following: The occupation
1. is a full-time and stable job, serving continuing societal
needs;
2. is regarded as a lifelong calling by the practitioners, who
identify themselves personally with their job subculture;
3. is organized to control performance standards and
recruitment;
4. requires formal, theoretical education;
5. has a service orientation in which loyalty to standards of
competence and loyalty to clients’ needs are paramount;
6. is granted a great deal of collective autonomy by the
society it serves, presumably because the practitioners
have proven their high ethical standards and
trustworthiness.
[Allan R. Millett, Military Professionalism and Officership in America (Columbus, Ohio, 1977), 2.
General James Wilkinson
and the Early National Armies
• Little professional
education
• No standards of entry or
promotion
• In and out of service
• Did not see himself solely
as a member of the officer
corps
• Often politically appointed
• Little self-identity with the
nation
“The Thirty Years’ Peace”
1815-1845
• Calhoun Reforms (1817-25)
– John C. Calhoun, SecWar,
idea of using Regulars as a
cadre (Expansible Army)
– Continues to build coastal forts
– Enlarges Regular army
– Establishes Army staff
(ordinance, QM, etc.)
• West Point reforms under Thayer
(1817-32)
– USMA as preeminent
engineering school in America
• Scott Reforms
– Military Laws
– Regulations
– Tactics
“Expansible Army” Concept
• 1821: Congress plans to cut the army
• Calhoun developed a plan in
coordination with his generals
• Army to be small in peacetime
• Cadre top-heavy with officers & NCOs
• Capable of rapid wartime expansion
• Demands an officer corps dedicated to planning for
war
• Congress disapproved, but the concept endured
“at the commencement of hostilities, there
should be nothing either to new model or create”
Agents of Reform:
Sylvanus Thayer
Superintendent, USMA, 18171833
Reforms
•Four-year program
•Thayer method
•Regular examinations
•Engineering curriculum
•Order of merit
•Disciplinary system
•Office of Commandant
•Academic Board
•Board of Visitors
Educator of a New Profession
New Conceptualization of Officer
Profession, 1815-1861
• now lifelong commitment
• educational system
• social system – shape
their craft
-apolitical
-truly national
-anti-amateur
Antebellum Army – Operations
other than War
• Clearing Indians/security
• Exploration/mapmaking
• Internal improvements
• Enforcing trade regulations
What does the U.S. Army bring to the table in order
to accomplish these missions?
War with Mexico…
Why?
War with Mexico
Causes:
• Manifest Destiny – U.S. wants the
West for expansion and settlement.
• Mexican Government untidy – lots of
revolutions and govt. changes in
Mexico between 1830-1844.
• American citizens living in Mexico
treated badly by government, usually
when the Americans plan revolutions
and stuff.
• Mexico owes U.S. a lot of money, and
due to political instability, not likely to
pay it off.
Antonio Lopez de
Santa Anna
(1794-1876)
• Dispute between Mexico and the U.S.
over boundaries of Texas.
• In 1844, Democrats make expansion
a key plank in their presidential
election platform.
Polk elected in 1844. He
hoped that he could acquire
Mexican territories in the West
through diplomacy. Mexico
severed diplomatic ties with
the U.S., so Polk decided to go
to war.
He wanted the Mexicans to
start the war, so that an
outraged U.S. public would
demand war. But the Mexicans
refused to cooperate.
James K. Polk
Just as Polk was about to ask
for war anyway, Mexican and
U.S. troops fought a skirmish
on the Rio Grande River. Polk
blamed Mexico. Got his war.
War with Mexico
Mexico also had sufficient
grievances to want a war with the
U.S.
They believed that they could win
the war because:
• War would be unpopular in the
Northeastern U.S.
• Great Britain Might ally with
Mexico in the war.
Antonio Lopez de
Santa Anna
(1794-1876)
• Santa Anna was the greatest
general in the world – he liked to
call himself the Napoleon of the
Western Hemisphere.
Mexican hopes were unfounded.
Mexico lacked the military power
to defend even its home territory,
much less an empire.
Who was at fault?
Americans said that the Mexicans
shot first, and had crossed the Rio
Grande to attack U.S. troops.
Mexicans said Americans had
attacked them across the river, and
were the aggressors.
Whig Congressman, Abraham
Lincoln asked where the first spot of
American blood fell in the skirmish.
If on Mexican soil then the war was
unjust. His question called the “Spot
Resolution.”
Lincoln’s constituents showed their
appreciation by not re-electing him.
Frémont took volunteers and
regular army into New Mexico
where he met up with U.S. troops
under S.W. Kearny who had
advanced from Missouri.
Mexican War Highlights
American volunteers in Upper
California rebelled against Mexico
and established the Bear Flag
Republic.
Under Capt. John Frémont, Bear
Flaggers begin attacks against lower
California and northern New Mexico.
Zachary Taylor Won victories
along the Rio Grande, took
Monterrey, Mexico and inflicts a
major defeat on Santa Anna at
Buena Vista.
Winfield Scott landed at Vera
Cruz. After a series of battles
across Mexico, Scott enters
Mexico City on September 14,
1847. Mexico Surrenders.
So what did we get?
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo gives the U.S., California, Nevada, Utah, most of
Arizona and area of New Mexico not claimed already by Texas. U.S. gives
Mexico $15 million and pays Mexico’s outstanding debts to U.S. creditors.
The Army in the Mexican War
Lieutenant Sam Grant
Captain R. E. Lee
“I give it as my fixed opinion that but for our
graduated cadets the War between the United
States and Mexico might, and probably would,
have lasted some four or five years, with, in its first
half, more defeats than victories falling to our
share.”
-General Winfield Scott
Lessons Learned in Mexico for
West Point Grads
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•
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•
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Flanking Maneuvers
Training/Discipline
Logistics
Engineering
Artillery
• For the home front,
the war affirmed a
romantic view of
armed conflict.
Interior Lines
Exterior Lines
It’s All Here!
by
Jomini
The complete guide for
defeating your enemies.
Whether you are a
novice or pro this
book will make you
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Written by the
foremost expert in
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Democracy, Nationalism, and Expansion
So you want to be a General?
The Importance of Logistics
“Amateurs study tactics; professionals study
logistics.”
Next Up: What I know you’ve all been
waiting for: THE CIVIL WAR
58