Sudanese Civil War and the Conflict
in Darfur
IAFS 1000
Sudan at a Glance
• Was 10th largest state, largest in
Africa
• Red Sea coastline, Sahara
desert, tropical south
• Confluence of Blue Nile and
White Nile
• Capital: Khartoum
Sudanese Population
• Population:
– 41 million
– Concentrated in
Khartoum,
Darfur, South
• Density:
– 42/sq. mile
• Urbanization:
– 43%
The Distant Past
 Sudan was once home to
Nubia, a great empire of
black Africans that rivaled
the Egyptians.
 Nubia collapsed long ago
and black Africans were
pushed south by Arabs.
 Important to Southern
claims to Sudan.
“Land of Islam”
 Islam spread to the area of northern Sudan in the seventh
century.
 North Sudanese adopted Islam and reorganized politics
around Islam
 Proximate to Egypt, close relations with Middle East
“Land of Islam”
 Khartoum became an
important trading hub
 Slave traders were based in
the north and went south on
raids
 Ottomans conquered the area
in 1820s
“Land of War”
 Muslim jihadists failed to
spread Islam to the south.
 South Sudan called “Land of
War.”
 South raided for slaves, but
avoided occupation
Mahdi and Northern Nationalism
 The “Mahdi” led a resistance
against the Ottomans in the
late 19th century.
 Used Islamic propaganda to
unify Sudan
British Reconquest
 Britain helped Egypt defeat the Mahdiyah to return Sudan to
Egyptian rule.
 Colonial institutions established in the north.
 Rule through local leaders and Christian missionaries in the
south.
The Sudanese Civil War(s)
Independence
•
1954: Britain and Egypt sign accord that states a united Sudan will
become independent in 1956.
•
1955: Anticipating independence, southern military leaders mutiny,
initiate conflict against north.
•
1956: Sudan becomes a sovereign state, and joins Arab League same
month.
Rebel Leadership and
In-Group Policing
 Many peace accords failed because the rebels had no
authentic leader. No leader could maintain any peace
agreement.
 It was not until 1969 that Joseph Lagu was accepted as the
authentic leader of the south.
The “First Sudanese Civil War”
 1955 – 1969: Early Northern leaders pursued peace via
“Sudanization” (Islamization).
 1969: Military coup led by Nimeiri, who pursues
socialism rather than Islamization
 1972: Nimeiri offers South regional autonomy, allies
with the West and Egypt.
 500,000 killed (1955 – 1972).
Inter-War Years (1972 – 1983)
 1970s: Nimeiri survives
multiple attempted coups,
enjoys support of southern
leaders.
 1978: Chevron discovers oil
in the south.
Return to War
 The North responds to discovery of oil by withdrawing
autonomy granted to South and taking control of the oil
fields.
 Nimeiri’s most important ally, Egyptian leader Sadat dies
(1981).
 The regime weakens, Libya aids a coup that ousts Nimeiri in
1985.
There Will Be Blood

Oil fields (gray boxes)
concentrated in South.

Oil separated from
north by Nuba
Mountains.
Short-Lived “Democracy”
 Following the coup, an
election brings al-Mahdi
(grandson of Mahdi) to power.
 No votes cast in the south.
 1989: al-Bashir takes power in
coup
The SPLA
 The SPLA was formed by a group
of military officers led by John
Garang.
 Educated in Iowa, personal friend
of Ugandan President Museveni.
 Child Soldiers
1990s
 The SPLA held the south and
international support for SPLA
grew to include the United
States.
 Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda
relocate to Sudan in 1991.
 Sudan began exporting oil in
1999.
Comprehensive Peace Agreement
The CPA (2005)
 Created democracy with elections
every five years
 Grants power-sharing
 al-Bashir made President
 Garang made Vice President
 50/50 revenue-sharing
Causes of concern
 Garang dies in helicopter crash two
weeks after he is made VP.
 War in Darfur complicates peace
with South.
 Leaders have reneged on southern
autonomy in the past.
 South would vote to secede or
remain in Sudan in 2010/11.
 SPLA allowed to maintain army
until 2011
 Islamic law discontinued in South.
The War in Darfur
 Darfur is the western region of Sudan.
 Dry with arable land
 Extremely isolated
LAND OF THE FUR…
People of Darfur
Arab (40%)
Fur (25%)
Masalit (12%)
Zaghawa (9%)
Others (14%)
DIVERSITY AND SALIENCE IN DARFUR
 The people of Darfur, both Arab and non-Arab, are
predominantly Muslim.
 The most important difference between Arabs and non-Arabs
in Darfur:
 Arabs: Predominantly nomadic, use arable land for grazing
 Non-Arabs: Predominantly farmers, live permanently on arable land.
HISTORY OF DARFUR
 Independent Darfur
Sultanate until Egyptian
invasion in 1870s.
 Multi-ethnic feudal state.
 Major power in Sahara,
dominated trade
 Joined Mahdi movement
against Egypt in 1880s.
ANGLO-EGYPTIAN RULE
 After the Mahdi regime was defeated by the British and Egyptians
(1890s), the British decided Darfur was too isolated to be part of
Sudan.
 The British decided to include Darfur in Sudan in 1916.
 Like South Sudan, Darfur was ruled locally.
DARFUR AND INDEPENDENT SUDAN
 Darfur was a strong region for the Mahdi party that favored
isolationism and Islamist rule.
 Darfur distrusted Egypt and the Arabs running the country in
Khartoum.
 Impartial in South Sudanese civil war. Leaders from Darfur disliked
both sides.
DARFUR AND NIMEIRI
 Nimeiri came to power in 1969,
turned away from Islamization
 Darfur offered cross border
sanctuary for Islamists in Chad.
 Qaddafi supported an Islamist
movement against Nimeiri in
Darfur.
FAMINE AND FAILURE
Famine
 Famine, desertification
increase tension between
Arab herders and non-Arab
farmers.
Regime Failure
 al-Bashir, an Islamist, comes to
power in 1989.
 As government support for
 “Janjaweed” form, attack
farmers to claim land for
herders
janjaweed increases, rebel
groups form to defend
farmers.
JEM & SLM
Justice and Equality
Movement
Sudan Liberation
Movement
 Created by non-Arab
 Created by local Zaghawa
Islamists purged from alBashir’s regime.
and Fur leaders in Darfur.
 Divided into three major
 Founded by author of
“Black Book,” which used
government statistics to
show relative deprivation.
factions along ethnic lines.
The War Begins (2003)
•JEM/SLA attack
government
• Government responds by
giving janjaweed weapons,
air support.
•300K to 500k killed, most
Darfuri civilians
• 2.7 million refugees; 1/3
of Darfuris displaced
INTERNATIONAL INFLUENCE
 China continues to support
the al-Bashir regime with
investment, arms trades,
and support in the UN
Security Council.
 Genocide
 Bush Administration
 al-Bashir charged with war
crimes by ICC in 2009.
Countdown to Independence for South
Sudan – “The world’s newest nation”
 July 2009
 Both parties agree to allow The Hague to determine border
demarcation.
 April 2010
 First elections since CPA, Garang’s death
 January 2011
 The South votes to secede from Sudan
 Oil now accounts for 70% of Sudan’s export revenue
 Infrastructure remains undeveloped away from Khartoum, Port
Sudan
Independent South Sudan 2011
98.85 of citizens approved
independence by
referendum
 Salva Kiir Mayardit, a Dinka,
the first President of South
Sudan.
Civil War………Again 2014
Vice President and
now opposition
Leader, Dr. Riek
Machar, a Nuer
Lenses for Understanding these
Conflicts
The Resource Curse
 Used by Political Scientists, Economists, and Geographers
 minerals and fuels  less economic growth and worse
development outcomes
 What the …?
 Decline in the competitiveness of other sectors
 Volatility associated with market swings
 Government mismanagement of resources
 Weak/unstable political/economic institutions
Public Goods Distribution
 Used by Political Scientists and Economists
“Exporting Colonial Institutions”
 Used by Political Scientists, Geographers and Economists
 Should I stay or should I go?
 Colonizers weren’t fans of malaria…
 Exoticism of culture
 Colonial Legacy
 Extractive institutions
 Integrated institutions
Social Psychology Theories
 Intergroup Contact Theory
 Casual, impersonal contacts encourage hostile stereotyping
 Prolonged, personal contacts lessen discrimination
 Social Identity Theory
 Ingroup – outgroup comparisons
 Positive social distinctiveness for ingroup