The Study of
Islamic Theology
June 2010
Purpose of Study

Purpose of Study: to provide insight into Muslim
beliefs and document the doctrines that underlie
their thinking.

This is a study to understand, not judge Islam.

Study Issues
 What is Islamic theology, eschatology, soteriology, and
anthropology?
 How did Mohammed think and act?
 How has Islamic theology shaped thinking?
 How does this logic predispose Muslims to certain things?
 How can we use this understanding to our advantage?
2
Introduction

This study is an effort to remove our western constraints and
anchored thinking. It is an effort to understand through Muslim
eyes.

The United States military must understand the way that Muslims
think, how they view the world, and what underlies their logic.
This study provides unique insight into this thinking.

Without this understanding, we tend to unknowingly anchor our
thinking in western, secular, humanistic logic. To properly
understand, we must discard our Western ways of thinking. We
must allow Muslims to describe their own logic.

We must not attempt to impose our logic on them. We typically
describe their logic using western metaphors. This is dangerous
and leads to unfounded conclusions.
3
Definition of Terms

Theology- thinking about God, the nature of God

Eschatology- the nature of the afterlife

Soteriology- how to get to heaven

Anthropology- the nature of man

Transliteration- mapping from one system of writing into
another
Al-Azhar University
Cairo, Egypt
4
Short History Lesson About
Mohammed
Mohammed’s death- AD 632
Koran written- AD 634-639
Hadith recorded- AD 862
Battle of Ohad
Allah Akbar!
AD 625
Allah
950 men
Battle of the
Trench,
Subdues
Allies of
Quraysh
AD 627
Caravan Raids
Battle of Badr
AD 624
Medina
Revelations
Medina
Angel
Gabriel
Mohammed
AD 610
Mecca
Revelations
Consolidation of
Power
• Led 27 attacks
• Military leader
• Political Leader
Quraysh
Tribe
Kaaba
• Prayer
• Fasting
• Worship
360
Mecca
Mohammed Rejected
Attempted assassination
5
What is Islam?

The word Islam means submission.

The word Muslim means one who submits to Allah.

To submit to Allah, you must know what Allah wants. What does
Allah want? The answer to this question is found in the holy books
that define Islam- the Koran and the Hadith.

The goal of Islam, as stated in the sacred books of Islam, is to
subjugate the world under Islam by reason (Dawah) or by the sword
(Harb, Quital).
 This sacred obligation is mandated by the holy writings of Islam. A vast
majority of classical authorities adhere to this belief.

Islam defines a Muslim’s nature of existence, not simply his religion
as in the Western thinking construct.

Islam is predominantly a religion of rules, practices, and
observances that enable the faithful to earn their salvation by their
own merit.
6
The Koran (Recitations)

Allah’s revelations, not Mohammed's teachings

Believed to be the literal word of Allah, not divinely inspired human
authors; Mohammed orally revealed the Koran to his followers

Less an integrated narrative than a topical reference; organized by
size of chapter (sura), not by time

Recognized as having many contradictions

Contradictions removed by Law of Abrogation- something revealed
later replaces and erases something revealed earlier

Compiled after Mohammed’s death

Mohammed was illiterate

Non-linear, not cause and effect

114 Chapters

Sura 3:32 "Obey Allah and His Messenger”
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The Koran and the Law of Abrogation
Sura 16:101- When We substitute one revelation for another, and Allah
knows best what He reveals (in stages), they say, "Thou art but a forger":
but most of them understand not.
Sura 2:106- Whatever a Verse (revelation) do We abrogate or cause to be
forgotten, We bring a better one or similar to it. Know you not that Allâh
is able to do all things?

Later revelations in the Koran cancel out or abrogate (nasikh) the earlier
text (mansukh) within the Koran. They replace the older revelations and
substitute something better. The principle of nasikh is very strong. If a
verse is nasikh, or overridden, it is as if that verse does not exist.

The Mecca revelations are abrogated by the Medina revelations.

Later revelations:


Sura 9:5- Fight the pagans wherever you find them, and seize them, and lie in wait
for them in every stratagem (of war).
Sura 5:33- For those who do not submit to Allah, their punishment is execution or
crucifixion, or the cutting off of the hands and feet, from opposite sides, or exile
from the land.
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Example of Abrogation
THE VERSE OF THE SWORD- Sura 9:5- Fight the pagans wherever you find them, and seize
them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war).
Some of the verses abrogated by the verse of the Sword:
1) “Those who believe (in the Qur’an), and the Christians and the Sabians – any who believe in
Allah and the Last Day, and work righteousness, shall have their reward with their Lord: on
them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve” (Sura 2:62).
2) “Quite a number of the People of the Book wish they could turn you (people) back to infidelity
after ye have believed, from selfish envy, after the Truth hath become manifest unto them: but
forgive and overlook, till Allah accomplish his purpose” (Sura 2:109).
3) “But because of their breach of their Covenant, We cursed them, and made their hearts grow
hard; they change the words from their (right) places and forget a good part of the Message
that was sent them, nor wilt thou cease to find them – barring a few – ever bent on (new)
deceits: but forgive them, and overlook (their misdeeds): for Allah loveth those who are kind”
(Sura 5:13).
4) “Leave alone those who take their religion to be mere play and amusement, and are deceived
by the life of this world. But proclaim (to them) this (truth): that every soul delivers itself to
ruin by its own acts: it will find for itself no protector or intercessor except Allah: if it offered
every ransom, (or reparation), none will be accepted: such is (the end of) those who deliver
themselves to ruin by their own acts: they will have for drink (only) boiling water, and for
punishment, one most grievous: for they persisted in rejecting Allah” (Sura 6:70).
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The Hadith (Traditions)

Contain things attributed to Muhammad, as opposed to the Qur'an
which is the word of Allah. Hadith are regarded as the words of
Muhammad and not the word of Allah, in most cases.

Contain reports about the statements or actions of Mohammed, or
about his tacit approval of something said or done in his presence.

Muslims believe that they can look at the way of life, or sunnah, of
Muhammad and his companions to discover what to imitate and
what to avoid. Sahih al-Bukhari recognized as most authentic.

Originally oral traditions relating to the words, deeds, and customs
of Mohammed. Later, several hundred thousand traditions reduced
to about 28,000 traditions.

Specify how to do everything in Muslim culture.

Sunni hadith completed 230 yrs after Muhammad.

Hadith 9.57- Anyone leaving Islam must be killed.
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Holiest Sites in Islam
Mecca
Medina
Dome of the Rock
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The Five Pillars of Islam

Statement of Belief (Shahadah): "There is no God but
Allah. Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.”

Prayer (salat): Pray five times a day while facing the
Kabba; ritualistic prayer, not a personal relationship
prayer between creature and creator

Giving alms (zakat): Similar to taxes, distributed to
Muslims in need, and to further jihad; min 2.5%

Fasting (sawm): Ramadan fasting

Pilgrimage (hajj): Travel to Mecca at least once
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Core Doctrines- Comparison
Historical Imperatives
Islam
Christendom

Politico-military expansion

Persecution and struggle

Fusion of religion and state


Theocratic government
Tension between church
and state

Secular government
Political Imperatives

Unitary Kingdom- Politicalreligious integration

Identity based on group

Legal code based on
Shari’ah

Differentiated KingdomPolitico- religious tension
and ultimate separation

Identity based on
individuation

Legal code based on
natural law
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Core Doctrines- Comparison
Founding Prophets / Scriptures and Canon
Islam
Christendom

Mohammed- prophet,
soldier, statesman

Jesus Christ- God’s Son,
martyred savior

Koran- topical
fractionalized

Bible- integrated narrative

Orthopractical- doctrine of
grace through faith

Hadith- what Mohammed
said or did; defines work
requirements

Orthopractical- doctrine of
works and law
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Theological Doctrines Comparison
Islam
Christendom
Eschatology- the nature of eternity
Future Paradise- celebrates
man’s rewards

Future Heaven- celebrates
man’s reunion with God

Soteriology- how to secure eternity

By Works (and Faith)enabled by man’s lifetime
efforts

By Grace through Faithenabled by Christ’s sacrifice
for man
Theology- the nature of God

Allah- “the essence of all
existence”

God (trinitarian)- the creatorredeemer of the world
Anthropology- the nature of man

Fitra- man’s nature is neutral

Original sin- man’s nature is
fallen and corrupt
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According to Islam,
what must a Muslim do to go to paradise?

Sura 23: 102-103- To those whose balance (of good deeds) is
heavy, they will be successful. But those whose balance is
light, will be those who have lost their souls; in Hell will they
abide.

Sura 2:284- Allah forgives whom he pleases, and punishes
whom he pleases, for Allah has power over all things.

Muslims believe that the sum of their good works must
outweigh the sum of their bad works. However, the final
determination will always be made by Allah. Fate (kismet) in
the hands of the all-powerful Allah will decide the outcome.
There is no guarantee of entrance into heaven by works, even
for the most righteous, as stated by Mohammed.

Consequently, the devout Muslim makes every effort to please
Allah and thereby obtain heaven through works.
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Fatalism in Islam

In Islam, good works can only give one hope for heaven,
but never the guarantee of it.

Admission to heaven is left unresolved until the Day of
Judgment. Allah sends to heaven whomever he pleases
and to Hell whomever he pleases.
 Surah 14:4- We sent a messenger (to teach) in the language of his
(own) people, in order to make (things) clear to them. So Allah
leads astray those whom He pleases and guides whom He
pleases and He is exalted in power, full of wisdom.

Muhammad questioned his own salvation and expressed
uncertainty about his future. Narrated 'Um al-'Ala: “By
Allah, though I am the Apostle of Allah, yet I do not know
what Allah will do to me, …” (Hadith al-Bukhari Volume 5,
Book 58, Number 266).
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Jihad (Struggle)

There is only one way to guarantee entrance into Paradiseto die in jihad.

Koran on Jihad
 Let those (believers) who sell the life of this world for the
hereafter fight in the cause of Allah, and whoso fights in the
cause of Allah, and is killed or gets victory, we shall bestow
on him a great reward. -Sura 4:74
 In reference to jihadists, the Koran also says “For them
Allah has got ready gardens (Paradise) under which rivers
flow, to dwell therein forever. That is the supreme
success.” -Sura 9:89
 Fighting is prescribed for you, and you dislike it. But it is
possible that you dislike a thing which is good for you, and
that you love a thing which is bad for you. But Allah knows
and you know not. - Sura 2:216
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Jihad (Struggle)

Koran on Jihad
 Those who have left their homes, and were driven out therefrom, and suffered harm in My Cause, and fought and were
slain,-Verily, I will blot out from them their iniquities, and admit
them into Gardens with rivers flowing beneath; … –Sura 3:195
 So, when you meet (in fight-Jihad in Allah’s Cause) those who
disbelieve, smite (their) necks till when you have killed and
wounded many of them, then bind a bond firmly (on them, i.e.
take them as captives). –Sura 47:4
 O, you who believe! Fight those of the disbelievers who are
close to you, and let them find harshness in you; and know
that Allah is with those who are Al-Muttaqun (the pious). –Sura
9:123
 Those who reject Islam must be killed. If they turn back (from
Islam), take hold of them and kill them wherever you find
them… -Sura 4:89
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Jihad (Struggle)

Koran on Kaffir and Jihad
 If anyone desires a religion other than Islam, it will never be
accepted of him. –Sura 3:85
 For the unbelievers are open enemies to you. –Sura 4:101
 For the unbelievers, Allah has prepared a humiliating
punishment. –Sura 4:102
 For those who do not submit to Allah their punishment is
execution or crucifixion, or the cutting off of the hands and
feet, from opposite sides, or exile from the land. –Sura 5:33
 I will instill terror into the hearts of the unbelievers, smite ye
above their necks and smite all their fingertips of them. It is
not you who slew them; it was Allah. –Sura 8:13-17
 Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the last day.
–Sura 9:29
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Jihad (Struggle)

Hadith on Jihad
 The Hadith also interprets jihad as a “fight, struggle, or battle”.
 Bukhari’s first volume notes, “Allah’s Apostle was asked, ‘What is
the best deed?’ He replied, ‘To believe in Allah and His Apostle
(Mohammed).’ The questioner then asked, ‘What is the next (in
goodness)?’ He replied, ‘To participate in Jihad in Allah’s
cause.’” – Volume 1, Book 2, Number 25
 The title of Book 52 of Bukhari’s Hadith is Fighting for the Cause
of Allah (jihad). In this volume, Ibn `Abbas relates: Allah’s Apostle
said, “There is no Hijra (i.e. migration from Mecca to Medina) after
the conquest (of Mecca), but jihad and good intention remain; and
if you are called (by the Muslim ruler) for fighting, go forth
immediately.” –Volume 4, Book 52, Number 42
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Jihad (Struggle)

Hadith on Jihad
 Sahl bin Sad as-Sa’idi states, “I saw Marwan bin al-Hakam sitting
in the Mosque. So I came forward and sat by his side. He told us
that Zaid bin Thabit had told him that Allah’s Apostle had dictated
to him the Divine verse: ‘Not equal are those believers who sit [at
home] and those who strive hard and fight in the Cause of Allah
with their wealth and lives.’” Here as-Sa’idi cites the Koran (sura
4:95) to substantiate the teaching of combat as holy fighting.

Sharia’h on Jihad
 Jihad is defined in legal terms by Islamic fiqh as: “Jihad is
fighting anybody who stands in the way of spreading Islam. Or,
fighting anyone who refuses to enter into Islam.”
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Conclusions about Jihad

The Koran and the Hadith direct the Muslim to convert or conquer
the infidel (kaffir).

Muslims who die in the struggle against infidels (jihad) will
immediately be sent to the highest level of Paradise and will not go
to the grave to await judgment.

Islam defines the world as either the House of Islam (dar al-islam) or
the House of War (dar al-harb).

Jihad means that Muslims must fight the enemies of Allah until the
enemies die or the Muslims die.

Jihad is combat on the fronts of politics, warfare, and culture.
Mohammed employed these principles throughout the Arabian
Peninsula.

If jihad is only a personal internal struggle, the Prophet misled the
people through his actions and words recorded in the Hadith.
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Taqiyya or Kithman

When dealing with Kaffir, Islam encourages lying, deception,
concealing facts if, in the judgment of the individual Muslim, this act
will further the cause of Islam.

Precedence is taken from Mohammed’s actions when one of his
soldiers was captured and forced to renounce Islam and Mohammed.
Mohammed stated that all Muslims should follow his example.

Precedence is also taken from Mohammed’s actions during the
Battle of the Trench. He sent the new Muslim convert Banu Quraiza
to spread feelings of suspicion and mistrust among the tribes laying
siege to Medina. Banu Quraiza deceived the tribes as to his true
allegiance.

Mohammed stated that war is deception.

Bukhari 4, 52, 269.
24
Do All Muslims Believe This?
Liberal
“Secular
Muslims”
Law of Abrogation
$
Conservative
“Traditional
Muslims”
Purists / Fundamentalists
Reject Law of Abrogation
Follow nice parts of Islam.
Considered “apostate”.
1.
2.
Secular Muslims
Believe in the “nice parts” of
Islam.
Large number of Muslims,
but do not represent “true
Islam”.
“Fundamentalists”
Adhere to Law of Abrogation
Same theology.
Willingness to act varies.
1.
2.
Traditional Muslims
Know and practice Islam, but
have problems with jihad, or
Know jihad is fighting nonMuslims, but lack ability to fight
or want to live a long life / be with
family and children.
Fundamentalists
Goal is to practice Islam
as Mohammed did.
25
Sharia’h (the path)

Practical implementation of principles of Islam derived
from the Koran and Hadith (and sunna).

Comprehensive body of Islamic laws that should regulate
the public and private aspects of the lives of the Muslims

Legal code designates different rules for Muslims and
Kaffir.

Entire compilation of Sharia Law would have to be
contained in a library of many books

Legal code not based on natural law.

Provides rules for all aspects of life.

Adherence to these rules is good works.
26
What Does the Koran Say About Jews
and Christians?

Jews and Christians are the enemies of Islam according to Sura
8:39, 5:51-57, 4:89, 8:57, 4:47,…

Those who disbelieve, among the People of the Book and among
the polytheists, will be in hell-fire, to dwell therein. They are the
worst of creatures. –Sura 98:6

States that Allah revealed doctrines to the Jews and Christians,
but they corrupted them. For example:
 States that all prophets were Muslim including Adam, Abraham, Moses,
and Jesus.
 States that Abraham was commanded to sacrifice Ishmael (not Isaac),
ram offered instead, kabba built in thanks to Allah
 States that Jesus Christ never claimed to be deity
 To resolve the resurrection of Christ, states that Judas died in the place
of Christ on the cross
 States that there is no Father, Son, Holy Spirit- only Allah
 States that Islam is Allah’s final revelation
27
Kaffir and Dhimmi Status

In a land taken over by Muslims, the people have three
options, as defined by the Prophet Mohammed: become
Muslim, live as dhimmis, be killed.

All who do not submit to Islam are Kaffir.

Dhimmis- someone that has not become a Muslim living
in a Muslim-controlled area
 Clothing to identify as Kaffir
 Made to feel subjugated- avert eyes, walk on sides of street
 Cannot practice religion openly- no symbols, no telling others
about their religion, no church bells, no crosses, no Bibles, no
music
 Cannot repair existing churches or build new churches
 Must pay taxes (jizyah)- in a public place where they are
humiliated- sometimes hair is shaved or forehead is painted
28
Summary of Islam

Islam requires submission to Allah. The Koran and Hadith define
how a Muslim submits to Allah.

Islam is a religion of works (and faith).

On judgment day, Allah weighs your good and bad works and
decides whether you go to Paradise or hell. There is no guarantee of
entrance into heaven, even for the most righteous.

Allah stated in the Koran that if you die in jihad, then you are spared
judgment and automatically go to Paradise.

The Law of Abrogation resolves conflicts in the Koran.
Unfortunately, sura 9:5 (verse of the sword) overrides other verses.

Islamic legal code is based on sharia’h, not natural law.

Islam is a fusion of religion and state.

Mohammed is the ideal example for Muslims. He is considered to be
a prophet, skilled soldier, and gifted statesman.
29