Comprehensive Anatomy & Physiology
Study Guide
Unit 1: Anatomical Directional Terms
1. Superior vs. Inferior

Superior (Cranial / Cephalic): Toward the head end or upper part of a structure
or the body; above.
o

Example: The forehead is superior to the nose, or the heart is superior to
the diaphragm.
Inferior (Caudal): Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a
structure or the body; below.
o
Example: The navel is inferior to the breastbone, or the liver is inferior to
the diaphragm.
o
Note: Caudal literally means "toward the tail" and is synonymous with
inferior only down to the inferior end of the spine.
2. Anterior (Ventral) vs. Posterior (Dorsal)

Anterior (Ventral): Toward or at the front of the body / belly side; in front of.
o

Example: The breastbone is anterior to the spine, or the aorta is ventral to
the vertebral column.
Posterior (Dorsal): Toward or at the backside of the body / spine; behind.
o
Example: The heart is posterior to the breastbone, or the esophagus is
posterior to the trachea.
o
Note: Anterior/Ventral and Posterior/Dorsal are synonymous in humans,
but differ in four-legged animals (where ventral = belly/inferior surface and
dorsal = back/superior surface).
3. Medial, Lateral, and Intermediate

Medial: Toward or at the midline of the body (or midsagittal plane); on the inner
side of.
o

Lateral: Away from the midline of the body (midsagittal plane); on the outer side
of.
o

Example: The heart is medial to the arm / lungs.
Example: The arms are lateral to the chest, or the eyes are lateral to the
nose.
Intermediate: Between a more medial and a more lateral structure.
o
Example: The collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and the
shoulder.
4. Proximal vs. Distal

Proximal: Close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment of a limb to
the body trunk.
o

Distal: Farther from the origin of a body part or point of attachment of a limb to
the body trunk.
o

Example: The elbow is proximal to the wrist.
Example: The knee is distal to the thigh, or fingernails are at the distal
ends of fingers.
CRITICAL RULE: Proximal and Distal are terms ONLY used when describing
direction in the extremities (limbs).
5. Superficial vs. Deep

Superficial (External): Toward or at the body surface.
o

Example: The skin is superficial to the skeleton / muscles.
Deep (Internal): Away from the body surface; more internal.
o
Example: The lungs are deep to the rib cage, or bones are deep to
muscles.
Unit 2: Regional Terminology & Anatomical
Landmarks
Regional terms identify specific landmarks on the body and serve as root words for
related bones, muscles, nerves, and blood vessels.
1. Head and Skull (Cephalic / Anterior)

Frontal: Forehead

Orbital: Eye

Nasal: Nose

Buccal: Cheek

Oral: Mouth

Mental: Chin

Occipital (Posterior): Base / back of the skull
2. Trunk & Torso

Cervical: Neck

Thoracic: Chest / mid-back spine

Sternal: Sternum (breastbone area)

Pectoral: Chest

Axillary: Underarm / armpit

Abdominal: Belly

Umbilical: Belly button

Pelvic: Pelvis

Inguinal: Groin

Pubic: Genitals
3. Posterior (Dorsal) Trunk

Scapular: Area around the shoulder blade

Vertebral: Spinal column

Lumbar: Spine of the lower back

Sacral: Sacrum area (between hips on lower back)

Gluteal: Buttocks
4. Upper Extremities

Acromial: Point of the shoulder

Deltoid: Curve/cuff of the shoulder

Brachial: Upper arm

Antecubital: Bend/front of the elbow

Olecranal (Posterior): Point/back of the elbow

Antebrachial: Forearm

Carpal: Wrist

Manus: Hand (Palmar = Palm, Digital = Fingers)
5. Lower Extremities

Coxal: Hip

Femoral: Thigh

Patellar: Anterior knee / kneecap

Popliteal (Posterior): Bend/back of the knee

Crural: Anterior lower leg / shin

Sural (Posterior): Calf

Fibular / Peroneal: Side of the lower leg

Pedal: Foot (Tarsal = Ankle, Calcaneal = Heel, Plantar = Sole/bottom, Digital =
Toes)
Unit 3: Overview of Major Organ Systems
1. Skeletal System

Principal Organs: Bones, cartilages, ligaments.

Principal Functions: Support, movement, protective enclosure of viscera, blood
formation, mineral storage, electrolyte and acid–base balance.
2. Muscular System

Principal Organs: Skeletal muscles.

Principal Functions: Movement, stability, communication, control of body
openings, heat production.

Three Muscle Types:
1. Skeletal: Attaches to skeleton; moves skeleton, provides framework.
2. Cardiac: Muscles of the heart; moves blood.
3. Smooth: Muscles of hollow internal organs; moves contents of hollow
organs.
3. Nervous System

Principal Components: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia, sensory receptors.

Principal Functions: Rapid internal communication, coordination, motor control,
sensation.

Key Traits:
o
Fast-acting control system with short-lived results.
o
Sensory receptors detect changes $\rightarrow$ messages sent to Central
Nervous System (CNS) $\rightarrow$ CNS assesses information
$\rightarrow$ brain coordinates changes.
4. Endocrine System

Principal Organs: Pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, thymus,
pancreas, pineal gland, ovaries (females), testes (males).

Key Traits:
o
Secretes chemical messenger molecules (hormones) into blood.
o
Slow-acting control system with long-lived results.
o
Controls body systems: Growth, Reproduction, Use and movement of
nutrients.
5. Circulatory System

Principal Organs: Heart and blood vessels.

Principal Functions: Distribution of nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones,
electrolytes, heat, immune cells, antibodies, fluid, electrolyte and acid–base
balance.

Transport Functions:
o
Transports $O_2$ and $CO_2$, nutrients and wastes, hormones and
ions.
o
White blood cells: Protect against infection.
o
Platelets: Stop bleeds.
6. Lymphatic System

Principal Components: Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, lymphoid organs.

Principal Functions:
o
Complements cardiovascular system by returning leaked fluids back to
bloodstream.
o
Cleanses blood by finding and trapping pathogens.
o
Houses white blood cells involved in immunity.
High-Yield Comprehensive Practice Test
1. Which directional pair is used ONLY when describing structures on the
body extremities?
o
A) Superior / Inferior
o
B) Anterior / Posterior
o
C) Proximal / Distal
o
D) Superficial / Deep
2. The elbow is __________ to the wrist.
o
A) Distal
o
B) Proximal
o
C) Inferior
o
D) Medial
3. Which organ system provides fast-acting control with short-lived results?
o
A) Endocrine System
o
B) Nervous System
o
C) Circulatory System
o
D) Lymphatic System
4. The term Sural refers to which anatomical landmark?
o
A) Calf
o
B) Shin
o
C) Forearm
o
D) Armpit
5. Which component of the blood is specifically responsible for stopping
bleeds?
o
A) White blood cells
o
B) Hormones
o
C) Platelets
o
D) Lymph nodes
6. The collarbone is intermediate because it is located:
o
A) Superior to the head and inferior to the chest
o
B) Between a more medial structure (breastbone) and a more lateral
structure (shoulder)
o
C) Deeper than the internal organs
o
D) Proximal to the fingers
7. In human anatomy, which term is completely synonymous with Ventral?
o
A) Posterior
o
B) Anterior
o
C) Superior
o
D) Caudal
Answer Key with Explanations
1. C — Proximal / Distal (Proximal and distal are specifically reserved for limbs
relative to the trunk attachment point).
2. B — Proximal (The elbow is closer to the point of arm attachment than the
wrist).
3. B — Nervous System (Nervous system = fast/short-lived; Endocrine system =
slow/long-lived).
4. A — Calf (Sural = posterior calf; Crural = anterior shin).
5. C — Platelets (Platelets stop bleeds; white blood cells protect against infection).
6. B — Between a more medial structure (breastbone) and a more lateral
structure (shoulder) (Definition of intermediate).
7. B — Anterior (In human anatomical position, ventral and anterior both refer to
the front side).