1) Judicial Review
Judicial review is the power of the courts to decide whether a law or government
action is constitutional.
It was established in the Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison (1803).
2) Supreme Court Justices
There are 9 Supreme Court justices.
They are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.
3) Public Policy (+ Examples)
Public policy = what the government chooses to do or not do about a problem.
Examples:

Environmental policy (ex: Clean Air Act)

Education policy (ex: funding for public schools)

Health policy (ex: Affordable Care Act)

Economic policy (ex: taxes, spending rules)
4) Laissez-faire + Similar Policies
Laissez-faire = “hands off” economics; government does not interfere with the
economy.
Similar economic approaches:

Free market capitalism

Supply-side economics

Neoliberalism (reduced government regulation)
5) NATO
NATO = North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
It is a military alliance created in 1949 for collective defense.
Members include: U.S., Canada, U.K., France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Poland, Turkey,
and many others (31 members total as of 2024).
6) Definitions + Examples
Nation-state
A country with defined borders and a shared identity.
Example: Japan, France.
United Nations (UN)
An international organization of countries that works on peace, security, and
cooperation.
Example activity: Peacekeeping missions.
Non-State Actor
An influential group not a government.
Example: NGOs, terrorist groups, corporations.
Diplomacy
Managing international relations through negotiation.
Example: Peace talks or treaties.
Deterrence
Using the threat of punishment or force to stop someone from acting.
Example: U.S. nuclear arsenal deterring attacks.
War Powers Resolution (1973)
A law that limits the President’s ability to send troops into combat without approval from
Congress.
7) Legal Terms
Majority Opinion
The official written decision of the Supreme Court.
Dissenting Opinion
Written by justices who disagree with the majority.
Concurring Opinion
Agrees with the outcome but for different reasons.
Plaintiff
Person bringing a lawsuit (the accuser).
Defendant
Person being sued or charged.
Civil Law
Disputes between individuals or organizations (ex: contracts, divorce).
Criminal Law
Government charges a person with breaking the law (ex: theft, assault).
8) Bureaucracy
A bureaucracy = government agencies that enforce and carry out laws.
Examples:

IRS

FBI

CIA

Department of Education

NASA

EPA
9) Pork-barrel Politics
Government spending on local projects mainly to please voters and help a politician get
re-elected.
10) Externality
A cost or benefit that affects someone who is not involved in the action.
Example: pollution harming people who didn’t produce it.
11) Senators Needed for a Treaty
67 Senators (a 2/3 vote) must approve a treaty.
12) Redistricting + Gerrymandering

Congressional districts are redrawn every 10 years after the Census.

Done by state legislatures (in most states).

Gerrymandering = drawing districts to benefit one political party.
13) U.S. Social (Welfare) Policy History + Medicaid
History (short version):

1930s: New Deal creates Social Security + first welfare programs.

1960s: Great Society creates Medicare/Medicaid, food stamps.

1996: Welfare reform changes cash assistance to “work-first” programs.
Medicaid:
A joint federal-state health insurance program for low-income Americans.
14) Presidential Cabinet
The vice president + heads of the 15 executive departments (like State, Defense,
Education, etc.).
Purpose: Advise the president and run major federal agencies.
15) Who the President Can/Can’t Appoint
CAN appoint:

Federal judges

Ambassadors

Cabinet secretaries

Heads of federal agencies
CANNOT appoint:

Members of Congress

State/local officials

Private citizens to non-federal jobs
16) Presidential Roles
(From class acting activity)

Chief Executive

Commander in Chief

Chief Diplomat

Chief Legislator

Head of State

Chief of Party

Chief Guardian of the Economy
17) How Someone Gets on the Supreme Court
1. President nominates a candidate.
2. Senate must confirm with a majority vote.
3. They are then sworn in.
18) Treaty vs. Executive Agreement
Treaty:

Formal agreement between countries

Requires 2/3 Senate approval

Strong, long-lasting
Executive Agreement:

Made by the President alone

Does NOT require Senate approval

Easier to make, can be undone by next president
19) Instruments of Modern American Foreign Policy
Examples:

Diplomacy

Economic sanctions

Military force

Trade policy

Intelligence gathering

Foreign aid
20) Congressional Committees
Joint Committee
Members from both House + Senate.
Select Committee
Temporary, created for a specific issue (ex: investigations).
Standing Committee
Permanent committee (ex: Finance, Education, Armed Services).
Conference Committee
Resolves differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.
21) Filibuster
A tactic in the Senate where a member speaks for a long time to delay or block a vote.
22) President’s Expressed Powers
Powers clearly written in the Constitution:

Veto laws

Commander in Chief

Make treaties (with Senate approval)

Appoint judges/officials

Grant pardons

Receive ambassadors

Execute federal laws
23) Roles of Congress Members

Delegate: votes how constituents want

Trustee: votes based on their own judgment

Politico: mix of delegate + trustee

Partisan: votes following their political party
24) How Many People Are in Congress?

House of Representatives: 435

Senate: 100

Total Congress: 535 members