CHAPTER 2: THE PHILIPPINES IN THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY AS RIZAL’S CONTEXT.
INTRODUCTION
The nineteenth century was the era of challenges and responses. It is a period of
major changes that affects man and society. During this period, such concepts of
liberalism, industrialism, democracy, social realization, and nationalism gained control and
sparked radical changes in science, technology, economics, socio-cultural, and political
conditions.
Throughout the 19th century, Spain was in a state of political instability, and there
was an ideological battle between the liberals and the conservatives. The instability of the
Spanish government made it impossible to develop a consistent policy in the colonies.
Corruption in the government resulted in its inability to provide for public works, schools,
peace and order, and other basic needs. The creation of the Guardia Civil in 1868 failed
to get rid of tulisanes; instead, they became an oppressive force in the provinces as Rizal
showed in his novels.
The transition of the country’s traditional societal structure to colonial hierarchy
brought about the enlightenment of the local inhabitants as to their common source of
problems and suffering. The Spanish Government unknowingly planted the seeds of new
concepts that created an impact on the local inhabitants.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:



Explain the different historical events that occurred during Rizal’s time.
Analyze the various social, political, economic, and cultural changes that occurred
in the nineteenth century
Understand and assess Jose Rizal in the context of his times.
LEARNING CONTENT
The 19th century was a period of massive changes in Europe, Spain, and in the
Philippines. During this era, the glory and power of Spain had been warned both in her
colonies and in the world.
One cannot fully understand Rizal’s thoughts without understanding the social and
political context of the 19th century. Social scientists mark the 19th century as the birth of
modern life and many nation-states worldwide. Three great revolutions precipitated the
birth of modernity: the Industrial Revolution in England, the French Revolution in France,
and the American Revolution.
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution is basically an economic revolution that started with the
invention of the steam engine and resulted in the use of machinery in the manufacturing
sector in the cities of Europe. It changed the economy of Europe from feudalism, an
economic system that relied on land and agriculture, to capitalism which relied on
machinery and wage labor. The merchants of Europe who became rich through trade
became the early capitalists of this emerging economy. Farmers from rural areas migrated
to the cities and became industrial workers while their wives remained as housekeepers at
home in what Karl Marx characterized as the first instance of the domestication of women.
The Industrial Revolution that started in Europe had repercussions to the Philippine
economy. A radical transformation of the economy took place between the middle of the
eighteenth century and the middle of the nineteenth; something that might almost be called
an agricultural revolution, with a concomitant development of agricultural industries and
domestic as well as foreign trade (De la Costa 1965: 159).
The economic opportunities created by the Industrial Revolution had encouraged Spain in
1834 to open the Philippine economy to world commerce. As a result, new cities and ports
were built. Foreign firms increased rapidly. Foreigners were allowed to engage in
manufacturing and agriculture. Merchant banks and financial institutions were also
established.
The British and Americans improved agricultural machinery for sugar milling and
rice hulling and introduced new methods of farming. The presence of these foreign traders
stimulated agricultural production, particularly sugar, rice, hemp, and—once the
government monopoly was removed in 1882—tobacco. Indeed, the abolition of restrictions
on foreign trade has produced a balanced and dynamic economy of the Philippines during
the 19th century (Maguigad & Muhi 2001: 46; Schumacher 1997: 17).
Furthermore, the fast tempo of economic progress in the Philippines during the 19th
century facilitated by the Industrial Revolution resulted in the rise to a new breed of rich
and influential Filipino middle class. Non-existent in previous centuries, this class,
composed of Spanish and Chinese mestizos rose to a position of power in the Filipino
community and eventually became leaders in finance and education (Agoncillo 1990: 129130). This class included the ilustrados who belonged to the landed gentry and who were
highly respected in their respective pueblos or towns, though regarded as filibusteros or
rebels by the friars.
The relative prosperity of the period has enabled them to send their sons to
Spain and Europe for higher studies. Most of them later became members of
freemasonry and active in the Propaganda Movement. Some of them sensed the failure of
reformism and turned to radicalism, and looked up to Rizal as their leader (PES 1993:239)
Lastly, safer, faster and more comfortable means of transportation such as railways
and steamships were constructed. The construction of steel bridges and the opening of
Suez Canal opened shorter routes to commerce. Faster means of communications enable
people to have better contacts for business and trade. This resulted to closer
communication between the Philippines and Spain and to the rest of the world in the 19th
century (Romero 1978: 16).
The French Revolution
If the Industrial Revolution changed the economic landscape of Europe and of the
Philippines, another great Revolution changed the political tone of the period—the French
Revolution. The French Revolution (1789-1799) started a political revolution in Europe and
in some parts of the world. This revolution was a period of political and social upheaval
and radical change in the history of France during which the French governmental
structure was transformed from absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the rich and
clergy to a more democratic government form based on the principles of citizenship and
inalienable rights. With the overthrow of monarchial rule, democratic principles of
Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity--the battle cry of the French Revolution--started to
spread in Europe and around the world.
Not all democratic principles were spread as a result of the French Revolution. The
anarchy or political disturbance caused by the revolution had reached not only in
neighboring countries of France, it has also reached Spain in the 19th century. Spain
experienced a turbulent century of political disturbances during this era which included
numerous changes in parliaments and constitutions, the Peninsular War, the loss of
Spanish America, and the struggle between liberals and conservatives (De la Costa 1965:
159). Moreover, radical shifts in government structure were introduced by liberals in the
motherland. From 1834 to 1862, for instance, a brief span of only 28 years, Spain had
four constitutions, 28 parliaments, and 529 ministers with portfolio (Zaide 1999: 203). All
these political changes in Spain had their repercussions in the Philippines, cracking the
fabric of the old colonial system and introducing through cracks perilous possibilities of
reform, of equality and even emancipation” (De la Costa 1965: 159).
Because of this political turmoil in the motherland, the global power of the “Siglo de
Oro of Spain in the sixteenth century as the mistress of the world with extensive territories
had waned abroad in the nineteenth century. Her colonies had gained momentum for
independence owing to the cracks in political leadership in the motherland. In fact, Cuba, a
colony of Spain, was waging a revolution against Spain when Rizal volunteered to
discontinue his exile in Dapitan to work as volunteer doctor there in order for him to
observe the revolution.
The divided power of Spain was triggered by successive change of regimes due to
the democratic aspiration created by the French Revolution. This aspiration had inspired
colonies under Spain and Portugal to revolt in order to gain independence from their
colonial masters in the 19th century.
The American Revolution
Finally, the American Revolution, though not directly affecting the local economy
and politics of the Philippines in the nineteenth century, had important repercussions to
democratic aspirations of the Filipino reformist led by Rizal during this period. The
American Revolution refers to the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century
in which the 13 colonies of North America overthrew the rule of the British Empire
and rejected the British monarchy to make the United States of America a sovereign
nation. In this period the colonies first rejected the authority British Parliament to govern
without representation, and formed self-governing independent states. The American
revolution had given the world in the 19th century the idea that colonized people
can gain their independence from their colonizers.
The Americans were able to overthrow their British colonial masters to gain
independence and the status of one free nation-state. This significant event had
reverberated in Europe and around the world and inspired others to follow. Indirectly, the
American Revolution had in a way inspired Filipino reformists like Rizal to aspire for
freedom and independence. When Spain opened the Philippines to world trade in the 19th
century, liberal ideas from America borne by ships and men from foreign ports began to
reach the country and influenced the ilustrados. These ideas, contained in books and
newspapers, were ideologies of the American and French Revolutions and the thoughts of
Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, Locke, Jefferson, and other political philosophers (Zaide
1999: 214)
Rizal’s time was deemed to be the height of the maladministration of Spain and its
decay that obscured the Philippine skies. The Filipino people suffered intensely beneath
the bondage of Spanish misrule for they were ill-fated victims of the evil, injustices,
prejudices and sudden collapse of colonial power.
The abuses and injustices made by the Spanish officials were as follows…
•
Instability of Colonial Administration
•
Corrupt Spanish Officials
•
No Philippine Representation to the Spanish Cortes
•
Human Rights Denied to the Filipinos
•
No Equality before the law
•
Mal-administration of Justice
•
Racial Discrimination
•
Frailocracy and Secularization Filipino Priests
•
Force Labor and Excessive taxes
•
Haciendas owned by Friars and Spanish Officials
The Rise of Filipino Nationalism
The malpractices of Spanish officials gave rise to Filipino nationalism and
nationalism is not a product of a sudden outburst of sentiment. It is brought about by
certain factors. that gradually develop. It is like a seed nourished by common ideals and
aspiration for national unity. Here are the following factors:
1. Racial Prejudice. The Spaniards commonly regarded the Filipino natives as belonging
to the “inferior race” and arrogantly called them “indios”. The actions and discrimination
made by Spanish people created an impact that the Filipinos started to revolt.
2. Influx of Liberal Ideas. In view of the fact that the opening of Philippines to world trade,
Philippines was exposed to international commerce, liberal ideas filtered in. The thoughts
of Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, Jefferson, and Locke were made known through
books and periodicals brought into the country by men from foreign ports (SUEZ CANAL)
3. Secularization of the Church. The Council of Trent (1545-63) affirmed that secular
priest be appointed to administer the parishes in the colony. In 1567, Pope Pius V issued
the Exponi Nobis, which allowed the regular clergy to serve as parish priest without
diocesan authorization and be exempted from bishop’s authority.
The return of the Jesuits in 1859 and the secularization policy affected the native
seculars; it transformed into Filipinization issue since the secular priests were mostly
Filipinos.
In 1870, Archbishop Gregorio Meliton Martinez wrote to the Spanish Regent
advocating secularization and mentioned that discrimination against Filipino priests would
encourage anti-Spanish sentiments. Archbishop Basilio Santa Justa accepted the
resignation of regular priests and appointed native secular priests to the parishes.
On November 9, 1774, a royal decree ordering the secularization of parishes
became the basis for the appointment of native secular clergy.
This was suspended in 1776 due to opposition of the friars and the unpreparedness of the
native priests.
3.1 Secularization Movement
Two kinds of priests that served the Catholic Church in the Philippines
-- Regular priests belonged to religious orders. Their main task was to spread Christianity.
-- Secular priests were trained to run the parishes and were under the supervision of the
bishops.
Conflict began when the bishops insisted on visiting the parishes that were being
run by regular priest. The secularization controversies transformed into Filipinization issue
since the secular priests were mostly Filipinos. The effort to secularize the parishes in a
way heightened the nationalist feeling of the people.
4. The Polo or Forced Labor. In addition to the tribute, the Polo or forced labor is another
Spanish that had created discontent among the indios during the Spanish times.
The word “polo” is actually a corruption of the Tagalog pulong, originally meaning “meeting
of persons and things” or “community labor”. Drafted laborers were either Filipino or
Chinese male mestizos who were obligated to give personal service to community projects,
like construction and repair of infrastructure, church construction, or cutting logs in forests,
for forty days.
All able-body males, from 16 to 60 years old, except chieftains and their elder sons, were
required to render labor for these various projects in the colony. This was instituted in 1580
and reduced to 15 days per year in 1884 (Constantino 1975: 51).
There were laws that regulate polo. For instance, the polista (the person who renders
forced labor) will be paid a daily wage of ¼ real plus rice. Moreover, the polista was not
supposed to be brought from a distant place nor required to work during planting and
harvesting seasons (Ibid: 52). Despite restrictions, polo resulted to the disastrous
consequences. It resulted to the ruining of communities the men left behind. The
promised wage was not given exactly as promised that led to starvation or even death
to some polistas and their families.
Moreover, the polo had affected the village economy negatively. The labor drafts coincided
with the planting and harvesting seasons; forced separation from the family and
relocation to different places, sometimes outside the Philippines; and reduction of
male population as they were compelled at times, to escape to the mountains instead of
working in the labor pool (Agoncillo 1990: 83).
5. Cavite Mutiny. In 1868, a revolution led by the liberals in Spain deposed Queen
Isabella II and gave rise to the Provisional Republic of Spain. With the victory of the
Spanish Revolution, many colonial officials with democratic ideals were sent to Manila,
which included Gov. Gen. Carlos De La Torre in 1869.
De La Torre, a liberal Spaniard who practiced liberal and democratic principles.
He abolished flogging, relaxed media censorship, and began limited secularization of
education.
The republican government was overruled with the restoration of monarchy. Amadeo, son
of King Victor Emannuel II of Italy, accepted the invitation to assume the Spanish crown in
December 1870. With the alteration of the system of government in Spain, the political
atmosphere in the Philippines likewise changed.
When Rafael De Izquierdo replaced De La Torre in 1871, he totally discarded the liberal
measures. The privileges of arsenal workers and others regarding exemption from tribute
and force labor were also abolished.
Many Filipinos protested, as a matter of fact, about 200 Filipino soldiers and dock workers
of Cavite, under the leadership of Sergeant La Madrid, Mutinied and killed their Spanish
Officers. It was suppressed and La Madrid and 41 others were executed in Bagumbayan
(present- Luneta).
The mutiny was used by the Spanish officials to implicate the liberal critics of the
government. Rumours were gradually spread and led in to the abduction of 3 Priests,
they were Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora. They were
sentenced to death by garrotte on February 17, 1872
Garrote:
Is
a
weapon,
most
often
referring
to
a
handheld
ligature
of
chain,
rope,
scarf, wire or fishing line
used to strangle a person
The decline of the Spanish rule in the 19th century and the popularity of Rizal and his
reform agenda were products of an interplay of various economic, social, political and
cultural forces both in the global and local scale. The three great revolutions, namely:
Industrial, French and American as well the birth of the social sciences and liberal ideas
had gradually secularized societies in the 19th century and thereby weakened the
influence of religion in people’s mind, especially the well-educated reformists and
ilustrados. The political turmoil in Spain caused by the rapid change of leadership and
struggle between conservatives and liberals had also weakened the Spanish
administration in the Philippines. Although the influence of the Catholic Church in the 19th
century led by the friars had not diminished, the liberal and progressive ideas of Rizal and
the reformists had already awakened the nationalist sentiment of the natives that soon
became the catalyst for political change in the late 19th century.