Exam Master Guide: Week 3 (Political Culture,
Media, Elections, Parties, and Groups)
1. Foundational Concepts and Theoretical Lenses
To master the complexities of Week 3, candidates must first establish a theoretical baseline by
contrasting the three primary analytical frameworks used to decode political behavior.
Approaches to Political Analysis
Approach
Definition
Key Characteristics & Exam Focus
Behavioralism
The study of politics based
on observable and
quantifiable human
behavior.
Focuses on objective data (e.g.,
voting statistics) to test hypotheses;
seeks to move politics from
"metaphysics" to a scientific
discipline.
Rational-Choice
Theory
A model-building approach
assuming individuals act in
their own rational selfinterest.
Uses economic models and Game
Theory. The Prisoner's Dilemmais the
central model (see below).
New
Institutionalism
A perspective reasserting
that the "rules of the game"
(institutions) shape
political behavior.
Views institutions not just as
buildings, but as norms and rules that
constrain self-interest and dictate
"appropriate" behavior.
• The Prisoner’s Dilemma Logic: This model demonstrates how individual rationality can lead to
collective irrationality. In the model (Source Figure 1.3), two prisoners lack trust. To avoid the
worst-case "sucker" outcome (10 years), both rationally choose to "squeal," resulting in 6 years
each (12 total). Had they cooperated/trusted one another, they would have served only 1 year
each (2 total). This highlights why cooperation is the fundamental "political" solution to scarcity
and lack of trust.
The Three "Faces" of Power Power operates beyond simple decision-making; it is a threedimensional phenomenon:
1. Decision-making: Conscious actions influencing the content of policy (e.g., a legislator voting
on a bill).
2. Agenda-setting: The ability to prevent issues from being discussed. Media and Interest Groups
exercise this "Second Face" by choosing which stories to headline, effectively filtering what
reaches the decision-makers.
3. Thought Control: Influencing others by shaping their very perceptions and wants. This is the
realm of Ideology and Propaganda, where the state or elites influence citizens to accept the
status quo as natural or beneficial.
Systems Theory David Easton's "Political System" model provides a macro-view of political
interaction:
• Inputs: Comprised of Demands (public pressure for change) and Supports (taxes, compliance).
• Outputs: Government decisions, laws, and policy allocations.
• Feedback: The public’s reaction to outputs, which then cycles back to create new inputs. This
process ensures the system maintains long-term equilibrium and stability.
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2. Chapter 9: Political Culture and the Media
Political Culture Fundamentals
• Polity: A society organized through the exercise of political authority (Aristotle viewed this as
rule by the many for the interest of all).
• Civil Society: The realm of autonomous groups (families, businesses, NGOs) that operate
independently of the state.
• Hegemony: A term refined by Antonio Gramsci, referring to the ability of a dominant class to
exercise power through cultural and ideological leadership rather than just force.
• Political Socialization: The process through which individuals are "inducted" into their political
culture, learning values and orientations.
The Media Landscape
• Traditional Media (Gatekeepers): Historically characterized by a one-way flow of information.
Elites and professional editors acted as gatekeepers, deciding which "authoritative values" were
transmitted to the public.
• Social Media (Interactive): Bypasses traditional gatekeepers, allowing for real-time engagement
and the rapid spread of counter-narratives. While enriching, it often facilitates "echo chambers"
and the spread of populist sentiment.
The Post-Truth Era
• Post-truth politics: A climate where objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion
than appeals to emotion and personal belief.
• Anti-intellectualism: A drift away from expert consensus toward raw sentiment, often fueling
the "Global Rise of Fake News" (Source Action Box 239).
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3. Chapter 10: Representation, Elections, and Voting
Theories of Representation
• Mandate: The authority granted by a constituency to a representative to act on their behalf,
usually based on an election victory.
• Direct vs. Representative Democracy: Direct democracy involves citizens making decisions
themselves (e.g., referendums); representative democracy delegates decision-making to elected
officials to balance expertise with accountability.
Electoral Systems Matrix
System
Synonyms/
Mechanics
Systemic Effect / Pros & Cons
Single-Member
Plurality (SMP)
"First-Past-ThePost" (FPTP)
Promotes strong, stable single-party
government; leads to two-party systems.
Disadvantage: Disproportionality.
Second-Ballot
System
Run-off System
Requires a majority to win; candidates must
appeal to a broader base in the second
round.
Alternative Vote
(AV)
Preferential Voting
Voters rank candidates; ensures the winner
has broad support but remains a
"majoritarian" system.
Mixed-Member
Proportional
(MMP)
"Additional
Member System"
Balances local representation (SMP) with
overall fairness (Party-list). Often leads to
coalition government.
SingleTransferable-Vote
(STV)
Preferential MultiMember
Highly proportional and gives voters choice
between candidates of the same party.
Complex to count.
Party-List PR
Proportional
Representation
Maximum fairness in seat-to-vote ratio.
Disadvantage: Weakens the link between a
rep and a local district.
Voting Behavior: Killer Keywords
• Partisan Dealignment: The weakening of long-term psychological attachments between voters
and specific parties.
• Class Dealignment: The decline in the relationship between a voter's social class and their party
choice.
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4. Chapter 11: Parties and Party Systems
Party Typologies
1. One-party: A single party monopolizes power, usually through the legal exclusion of others
(e.g., China).
2. Dominant-party: A single party consistently wins, though others are legal and elections are
competitive.
3. Two-party: Two major parties have a roughly equal prospect of winning government.
4. Multi-party: Several parties have a prospect of sharing power, typically via coalitions.
Case Study: South Africa (The ANC) The African National Congress (ANC) transitioned South
Africa from the Apartheid system of racial segregation to democracy in 1994.
• Data Points: 1994 Election (63% votes/seats); 2004 Election (70% peak); 2019 Election (57%
decline).
• Classification Analysis: South Africa is a Dominant-party system, not a one-party state. This is
because it operates within a multi-party framework with legal opposition and competitive
elections for the National Assembly, even though the ANC has historically secured comfortable
majorities.
The "Iron Law of Oligarchy" Proposed by Robert Michels, this law statesthat all organizations,
however democratic their start, will eventually be ruled by a small elite. This occurs because of
the practical need for specialized leadership and the tendency of leaders to consolidate power.
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5. Chapter 12: Groups, Interests, and Movements
Interest Group Models
• Pluralism: Power is dispersed among many competing groups; no single group dominates the
state.
• Corporatism: Major groups (usually Business and Labor) are integrated into the heart of
government policy-making.
• New Public Management (NPM): The application of private-sector management and market
mechanisms to the public sector and group interactions.
Group Types
• NGOs: Private, non-profit organizations independent of government, often focused on social or
environmental goals.
• Lobbies: Professional organizations hired to influence government decisions on behalf of
specific interests.
Social Movements
• "New" Social Movements: Networks focusing on identity, lifestyle, and culture (e.g., Feminism)
rather than purely economic class.
• New Left: A 1960s movement shifting focus from traditional class struggle to issues of
personal freedom and civil rights.
Tactical Dilemma of Environmental Interest Groups Environmental groups struggle with a core
strategic choice:
• Insider Status (Lobbying): Working quietly within formal political structures to influence
legislation; requires compromise and risk of "co-option."
• Outsider Status (Direct Action): Using protests and civil disobedience to change public
consciousness; risks alienating decision-makers.
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6. "Killer Keywords" & Overlapping Terms Glossary
• Conflict vs. Cooperation: Conflict is the competition between opposing forces; cooperation is
achieving goals through collective action.
• Power vs. Authority: Power is the ability to influence behavior; authority is the legitimate right to
do so.
• Polis vs. Polity: Polis is the ancient Greek "city-state"; Polity is the modern organized political
entity.
• Ideology: A coherent set of ideas providing a basis for organized political action.
• Populism: A style of politics claiming to represent "the people" against a corrupt "elite,"
prioritizing sentiment over ideological consistency.
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7. Summary of Key Thinkers
• Aristotle: Defined politics as the "master science" and argued man is by nature a "political
animal."
• Niccolò Machiavelli: Author of The Prince; viewed politics as a pragmatic "craft" (statecraft)
involving cunning and power-seeking.
• John Locke: Author of Two Treatises of Government; early liberal who championed the "natural
rights" triad of Life, Liberty, and Property.
• Hannah Arendt: Viewed power as "acting in concert"; argued politics is the highest human
activity as it involves interaction among free citizens.
• John Rawls: Author of A Theory of Justice; defined "Justice as Fairness" and proposed the Veil
of Ignorance to argue that redistribution is fair if it benefits the least advantaged.