SELF-EFFICACY
KEY CONCEPTS
Self-efficacy “an individual's belief in his or her own ability to organize and implement action to
produce the desired achievements and results” (Bandura (1997). It is a person’s judgment about being able
to perform a particular activity. It is a student’s “I can” or “I cannot” belief. It reflects how confident
students are about performing specific tasks. However, even if they think they have the skills, other things
like distractions might still get in the way of their success. So, self-efficacy is not just about what they can
do, but also about how confident they feel doing it despite challenges. The National Research Center on the
Gifted and Talented. (2013)
I.
What Influence Self-Efficacy?
Self-efficacy indicates how strongly individuals believe they have the skills to do well, even if they worry
about other factors getting in the way of their success. People acquire their self-efficacy beliefs from the
following four sources:
 Past performance
 Vicarious experience (observing others perform)
 Verbal persuasion
 Physiological cues
Past Performance
Past performance is the single greatest contributor to students’ confidence. If students have been successful
at a particular skill in the past, they will probably believe that they will be successful at the skill in the
future. The old adage, “Nothing breeds success like success” certainly is true when it comes to developing
self-efficacy. Students bring a wide variety of past experiences with them when they enter your classroom.
Some of those experiences have been positive, others have not. How students interpret their past successes
and failures can have a dramatic impact on their self-efficacy. If students believe their success in a particular
area is the result of the skills they developed (their ability), they are much more likely to be confident about
future success in that area.
Vicarious Experiences
When a student sees another student accomplish a task, the vicarious experience of observing a model can
also have a strong influence on self-efficacy. By observing others like themselves perform tasks, individuals
make judgments about their own capabilities. If a student sees a friend publish a poem, he might believe he
can also have one published. A third grader observing other third graders learn multiplication tables is likely
to believe that he can also learn them. The more students relate to the model being observed, the more likely
the model’s performance will have an impact on them. Self-modeling, where students observe themselves
succeed, is also a powerful influence. Watching video tapes of successful performances or viewing
photographs of past accomplishments can increase student confidence.
Verbal Persuasion
Telling your students, “You can do this,” can also increase their confidence to do a task. Although verbal
persuasion such as this can be important, it does not contribute as much as an individual’s own experiences
or vicarious experiences. The short-term effects of persuasion need to be coupled with actual successes.
The teacher’s credibility is also an important factor with verbal persuasion. Students experience higher selfefficacy when they are told they are capable by someone they believe is trustworthy.
Physiological Cues
The final source upon which self-efficacy beliefs are based are physiological cues. Sweaty hands or a dry
mouth are often interpreted as signs of nervousness. Students may feel that such signs indicate they are not
capable of succeeding at a particular task. Conversely, students may be aware of feeling relaxed before
confronting a new situation and develop a higher sense of efficacy toward the task they face. Physiological
cues are the weakest influence of the four presented here.
II.
Things We Need to Know Before Starting
A word of advice
As the teacher, you set the climate of your classroom and determine which strategies you can use to increase
student confidence in your classroom. Your training and previous practical experiences have provided you
with a repertoire of pedagogical skills that enable your success with students. The strategies presented in
the next sections will add to your collection of techniques that can enhance students’ learning. They do
that by: (1) helping students monitor their progress and (2) building their confidence in their ability to
learn. Once students believe they can learn and achieve, teaching becomes much easier.
Living down the past
The results of several hundred research studies demonstrate that the major reason most students do not
achieve to their potential is that they really do not believe they can succeed. I failed badly during my first
attempt at snow skiing. It was 12 years before I tried again. Because of my initial failure, I believed I could
not ski, and it was only after I observed others similar to myself successfully ski that I was willing to once
again try it. It was only after I experienced small successes during this later trial that I began to believe that
I might possibly learn to ski. Your students may also be haunted by past failures. This is particularly true
for students who have been underachieving for an extended period of time. Their past experience probably
has convinced them that they have limited prospects in the future.
Being aware of the trees through the forest
Many of your students are unaware of the progress they are making. Even adults are often unaware of their
own progress and growth until someone points it out to them. A young college student was excitedly
describing a variety of books he had read on school reform for a college education class he was
taking. Later in his conversation he mentioned that he really had not learned anything in the class. When
he was reminded about his earlier discussion on school reform and what he had read and talked about in
class, he replied, ‘I guess I really have learned a lot.” Even at the university level, students often are not
aware of the progress they are making.
III.
Where Do We Go from Here?
Now that you are aware of factors that influence the confidence your students develop toward various
learning tasks, you can begin to implement strategies to increase student self-efficacy. The next eight model
specific strategies that you can use to increase the confidence of the student you selected for this study.
The (8) strategies are:
1. Compliment Students on the Skills They Develop
As teachers we need to be careful about the way we phrase compliments and criticism. This section
and the next section will cover how to provide students with effective feedback.
What we say and how we say it does make a difference in our classrooms.
The childhood chant, “Sticks and stones may break my bones, but words will never hurt me,” does
not ring true when it comes to what teachers say. Although there are many possible explanations
for why one could fail, effort and ability are the most likely causes that students report. With certain
types of feedback, the words teachers select can have a significant effect on students’ perceptions
of their own effort and ability.
Be Specific with Compliments
Our goal as teachers is to help students believe that they have the skills to succeed. Therefore, we
must help them recognize their skills and abilities when they do well. Simple comments such as,
“You are good at math. You did very well on this math project” can begin to instill a sense of
confidence, although we will discuss how that compliment can be improved.
Help Student Understand that Abilities Are Not Innate
Everyone agrees that students should be encouraged to work hard as effort plays a significant role
in achievement. However, students need to believe that they have the skills to accomplish a task
before they will be willing to put forth the effort necessary to succeed at it. The key is to help
students recognize skills are developed and they have developed the skills necessary to succeed.
2. Help Students Serve as Their Own Model
As stated earlier, an important principle of modeling is perceived similarity between the observer
and the model. When the observer considers herself similar to the model, learning is more likely.
A new line of research that maximizes perceived similarity is called self-modeling. In selfmodeling, a tape or photograph is made of a learner doing some performance. The tape is usually
edited to show only positive behavior. Dale Schunk and Antoinette Hanson (1985) showed how
effective self-modeling can be.
3. Use Peer Models
Modeling is a type of social comparison that has an important influence on children’s selfefficacy during skill acquisition. Modeling can occur in two forms:
1. Children who observe a successful model similar to themselves are likely to believe
that they can perform as well as the model and thereby experience higher self-efficacy
(this section).
2. Children can also serve as their own model by observing tapes of themselves or by
mentally reviewing the steps they need to complete a project (next section).
Digging Deeper: Research on Models
Considerable research has shown the usefulness of models. Teachers are important models, of
course, but Dale Schunk and Antoinette Hanson (1985) found that students can be just as potent.
When they showed elementary students a video of peer models learning a skill, the observers gained
more in self-efficacy and achievement than when they watched a video of a teacher. Predictably,
both types of models were more effective than no model at all.
How to Effectively Use Models to Increase Students’ Self-Efficacy
 Student Models During Lessons
Within a classroom, students make judgments about their own abilities by assessing their
progress in comparison with their classmates, as well as by observing how well classmates
progress. The more a student perceives himself to be like a classmate, the more the
classmate’s success or failure will have an impact on his judgment of his own ability. This
perceived similarity to the model is an important factor. Models who are similar in
competence provide the best yardstick for students to assess their own skills and ability.
 Oral Questioning
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The common classroom practice of oral questioning provides a continual daily
environment in which students assess classmates’ competencies and make comparisons.
When a student correctly answers a question, a positive experience should result for the
student. When a student fails to respond correctly to a teacher’s question, not only is the
student’s self-appraisal of his own skill diminished, the self-efficacy of students in the
classroom who perceive themselves as having abilities similar to or less than him may also
decline, since they may begin to question their own ability.
How will the incorrect answer affect other members of the class? While it may have a
limited impact on those who believe they know the answer, the self-efficacy of those
students who are somewhat unsure about the new material may substantially decline. They
may be thinking, “This must be hard. Jane is really good at math and she could not figure
it out. How will I ever be able to do it?”. Now imagine that one of the low achieving
students is asked the question, and she is able to correctly answer it. Those students
observing may be thinking, “This stuff is easy. Jane has trouble at math and she can do it.
I will be able to easily do it.” In the latter case, the self-efficacy of the class may actually
increase. The problem for teachers is that it is sometimes hard to predict how well the target
student will respond. You may wish to:
 Ask open-ended questions that allow for a variety of responses.
 Develop a hand signal system with your class. You might have the students show
thumbs up for a “risk-taker” answer that they are unsure about, but would like to
share.
 Let students know that they do not have to proceed alone. When they are unsure
or incorrect, allow them to consult with other students to develop a better answer.
 Acknowledge all who contribute to solving a question. Even students who have
risked giving an incorrect answer at the start of a lesson have contributed toward
the solution.
 Students can put their answers on slate boards or sheets of paper and display the
boards toward the teachers. There is something less intimidating about writing an
answer that can easily be erased.
Working in Small Groups
Students who already understand concepts can also serve as models by demonstrating the
concepts to other students. Learning with and from each other takes advantage of the power
of modeling. Pairing students or allowing them to work in small groups where students
serve as each other’s’ models can be more potent than having the teacher model the lesson.
Naturally, group work should be structured such that each member of a group can
contribute to the process. For example, this might include having some record responses,
while others look up information. High achieving students need opportunities to work with
each other.
Cross-Age Tutoring
Cross-age tutoring is another effective use of modeling. Not only do the younger students
look up to the older students, the older students often act much more responsible when they
assume a modeling role. Cross-age grouping also gives older students an opportunity to
recognize how much progress they have made, as they compare their knowledge level with
younger students. It goes without saying that any one technique should be used in
moderation. You may arrange for your student to tutor younger students in a lower grade.
Involving Former Students
Another way to use modeling is to ask some of your former students to visit your class and
talk about their experiences. The value of modeling is that it lets students know that others
like themselves have successfully accomplished what they are about to attempt. The more
your students see themselves similar to the successful model you provide, the more
confident they will be about doing well on the new task. Peers usually serve as coping
models– someone who succeeds, but with some effort. Coping models are often more
influential than mastery models, who appear to do well without much effort. You might
arrange to have an older student from an upper grade work with the student involved in
this study
4. Help Students Document Their Growth
Past success is the best way to build confidence for future success. Educators need to take every
opportunity to help students document, and thus recognize, their growth.
 Individual charts that students keep in their desks are a great way to document
improvement. Many teachers have students make line graphs of their progress. Give
students frequent opportunities to update their progress. You might have the student in this
study graph how many homework papers she completes each week.
 Student journals are a useful place for students to consider what they have learned each
day. Periodically provide students with time to review their journals and reflect on the
progress they have made. If the student in this study does not enjoy writing, consider using
the calendar option listed below.
 Student portfolios are increasingly used for students to monitor their progress and to help
them become reflective evaluators of their work. Students might also select a sample of
their work each week and keep it in a larger envelope in their desk. After a periodic review
of past work, they may be surprised at their growth and how much more complex their
current work is when compared to a month, or even a couple of weeks ago. The same
principle can be used to create time capsules at the beginning of the year. Later in the year
the capsules can be opened and students can view how much progress they have made.
 A simple monthly calendar is also a convenient way for students to record their daily
progress. At the end of each day, the students make a note on their calendars of what new
material they mastered during the lesson. If they have not mastered anything new, they
record something they did well. For the purpose of this study, ask the student you are
working with to indicate something he did well in the content area you selected.
 Do not overlook the obvious. Sometimes we concentrate so much on a student’s
underachievement that we overlook the progress the student is making. When a student
misspells a word, commend him on the letters he used correctly. “Look, you used five out
of the seven letters correctly. Let us see if we can fix the other two.” Students often view
mistakes as fatal instead of fixable. A computer programmer does not throw away her
computer program when it does not work correctly. She finds the errors and fixes them,
because she knows that what is correct in the program is a lot greater than what is not. The
same message can be applied to school work.
5. Help Students Set Goals
Goals
An ancient Chinese proverb notes that no wind is favorable if one does not know to which port one
is sailing. Goals provide a standard against which students can gauge their progress, and setting
goals can have a substantial impact on student self-efficacy and achievement. Setting and
measuring goals is probably the most effective classroom modification teachers can make to
increase student confidence. When students achieve short-term goals, they gain an initial sense of
self-efficacy for performing well, which is later substantiated as they observe progress toward
longer-term goals. Goals are effective in two ways. First, they give directions for a student’s effort.
Second, they provide a way to measure, and thus draw attention to, previous achievement. As
mentioned earlier, past performance is the strongest indicator of self-efficacy, and helping students
set, measure, and record achieved goals draws their attention to their past performance.
Smaller can be better
When it comes to goal setting, smaller is better. Help your students set small, achievable goals that
can be accomplished quickly. As you work through a project or unit, you can help them set more
difficult and larger, longer-term goals. During the initial phase of any project, short-term goals that
ensure immediate success are essential. Young students, in particular, are not able to focus on longterm goals. One setback during a long series of successes with short-term goals is much easier to
handle than a larger set-back with one long-term goal. As Michael Jordan’s advice at the right
states, “Step by step, I can’t see any other way…”
Research on Goal Setting
Ronald Taylor (1964) compared the goals of underachievers and achievers. He found that
underachievers either had no particular goals, or if they did, aimed impossibly high. Achievers, by
comparison, set realistic, attainable goals that were related to their school work.
Robert Wood and Edwin Locke (1987) found a significant relationship between goals and selfefficacy: Students with a stronger sense of efficacy also set higher, but reachable, goals. Wood and
Locke also pointed out that more challenging goals usually prompt higher achievement. Challenge,
of course, is in the eye of the beholder. Goals the teacher considers challenging may be seen as too
stiff by some students, and laughably easy by others. The challenge for the teacher, then, is to assist
students in setting reasonable goals for themselves.
Albert Bandura and Dale Schunk (1981) showed that when elementary students are taught to carve
up large, distant goals into smaller subgoals, several useful outcomes follow: They make faster
progress in learning skills or content, they learn an important self-regulation skill, and they improve
their self-efficacy and interest in the task. In every class, there may be some students who already
are skillful at goal-setting. On their own, gifted students– especially gifted girls– make frequent use
of goal-setting and planning strategies. But all students will profit from careful thought about their
achievement goals. Dale Schunk’s (1985) study of sixth grade learning disabled mathematics
students showed that the best learning occurred not just when the students focused on short-term
goals, but when they also had a say in goal-setting. Students showed more growth in self-efficacy
and math skills when they participated in goal-setting.
Specific goals are far more effective motivators than general ones, such as “Do your best.” When
a student goal contains a clear performance standard, it cuts out a lot of guesswork about where to
aim. Learning and self-efficacy are enhanced by specific goals, because it is easier for both teacher
and student to gauge progress.
6. Promote Recognition of Progress During a Lesson
Leave a Trail of Incriminating Evidence
One way to help students recognize the skills they are acquiring is to build the recognition into your
daily lessons. With a little effort at the beginning and end of a lesson, you can help your students
appreciate what they have learned and increase their self-efficacy. You want your students to be
aware of the progress they have made.
Review the Past
Begin each lesson by listing on the board the skills your students mastered from the previous lesson.
You can make such statements as, “Look how much we have already learned about how a bill
becomes a law.” This serves three purposes: It reviews previously learned material, it draws
attention to what students learned, and it helps set the stage for the new material you are about to
cover.
Set the Stage
Prior to beginning a lesson, post the skills the students will learn during the lesson. Briefly discuss
how the new skills build upon what the students already know. This also serves three purposes.
First, it draws attention to what you want the students to learn. Second, it provides a goal to measure
once the lesson is complete. Lastly, it makes the material less threatening by showing the students
how it connects to what they already know. If you are working individually with a student, help the
student record what she wishes to learn or accomplish.
Acknowledge Accomplishments
As the lesson progresses, physically place a check by each skill as you cover it. At the end of the
lesson, review the skills or goals that were achieved. Because the skills are already listed on the
board, it is easy to draw attention to the ones that were accomplished. By physically placing a check
next to each skill, you draw additional attention to their accomplishment.
7. Avoid the Appearance of Unsolicited Help
Barry Zimmerman and Manuel Martinez-Pons (1990) suggest that when you offer unsolicited
advice or help, students believe the advice or help signals low ability. Sandra Graham and George
Barker (1990) found even stronger effects: Not only do students being helped think of themselves
as less capable, but other students watching come to the same conclusion. Graham and Barker also
showed that expressions of sympathy following a substandard performance, or praise after an easy
task function in the same way. They warned that such well-intentioned teacher behaviors can be
powerful and enduring “low-ability cues.” Even first graders attach importance to teacher feedback
styles. They believe, for example, that teachers watch low achievers more and scold those they
think could do better.
There are times when you know that a student needs assistance, but is not requesting it. Instead of
walking directly to the student’s desk, your unsolicited help is less obvious if you circulate around
the room and randomly stop at the desks of several different students before and after visiting the
needy student. A routine practice of randomly stopping at student desks can help disguise
unsolicited help.
Avoid asking the student if she is having trouble. Instead, you might begin by saying, “I like your
opening topic sentence. What kinds of examples will you give in the rest of the paragraph to support
your position?” or “Yes, you see clearly the first step in this two-step math problem. How will you
proceed to the second step?” In both of these examples, a common thread exists. First, the teacher
begins with a positive comment on a real strength in the student’s work. Second, without focusing
on the student’s ability, a question provides information about what additional avenues the student
may want to explore. Third, the statements place responsibility for learning onto the student. You
might also try a neutral invitation for help, “How are you doing?”
8. Help Students Practice Lack-of-Effort Explanations for Poor Performance
Feedback is essential for learning and performance.
Researchers are increasingly finding that feedback has many boundary conditions: It is not as
simple as either-you-get feedback-or-you-do not. The style and content of feedback is also
important. For example, Carol Dweck (1975) found that, following failure, many students profited
when teachers commented that the students did not seem to be trying hard enough. Those students
—especially the ones who anguished over their failure— improved even more after they practiced
the same explanation for failure: “I didn’t put out enough effort.” Dweck’s reasoning was that effort
explanations are readily changeable; decisions about how much effort to expend are under personal
control. By comparison, explanations that rely on more stable reasons —such as “I am not good at
this”— are beyond personal control. If a student blames failure on lack of ability, then there is
nothing much to do about it. Unfortunately, attributions for failure, practiced again and again,
become self-fulfilling prophecies. After several years of practice, unwittingly reinforced by
teachers’ hints about ability, student attributions for failure become resistant to change.
Dale Schunk (1984) showed that successful students who received feedback complimenting their
skills (as discussed in the previous section), rather than solely focusing on their effort, developed
higher self-efficacy and learning. So, skill attributions for success seems to result in higher
expectation for future skill development, whereas simple effort attributions may prompt students
to question their competence since they apparently need to work hard to succeed. In short, the
Dweck and Schunk studies suggest this feedback pattern: Encourage students to use effort as an
explanation for failure, and the skills they have developed as an explanation for success.
IV.
Exercise and Activity
Activities can play a significant role in boosting students' self-efficacy by providing opportunities for them
to experience success, develop new skills, and build confidence. Here are some activities that can help:
Activity No. 1: Goal setting: Imagination is a powerful thing!
Objective: A student’s imagination is a powerful and easily harnessed tool in helping him feel more
confident about approaching a goal. Guiding students through imagining themselves as confident and
successful in a stressful situation can help them feel the same in real life.
Instructions: Have students make a concrete plan about how they will approach an upcoming exam.
Encourage them to use using the following If-Then planning prompt to plan for specific intentions and
overcoming challenges:
• If it is Friday at 3pm (situation), I will identify specific days and times next week to study (action).
• If I get distracted by another activity (obstacle), then I will find a time to do the activity later
(action to address the obstacle) and return to studying.
Then, have students take 20 seconds to visualize how they will carry out their plans (for example, picture
when and where they will study next week).
 Encourage students to think through various sensory details when they are imagining the situation.
 Have students practice relaxation techniques, such as deep belly breaths, while engaged in
imagining to help them make a positive, relaxed connection with the experience.
Activity No. 2: Letter to Yourself
Instructions: Encourage the students to write a letter to themselves.
Objective: Understanding and accepting yourself is key to developing self-esteem, as is the ability to
reflect. In this light, writing letters to themselves can help children build these essential skills. Here are a
few different letter-writing activities you can try with students:
 Letter to your future self - children should write a letter to their future self about what they would
like to do and accomplish by the end of the school year. At the end of the year, return the letters to
students so they can reflect on how far they’ve come. If they didn’t fully reach their goals, celebrate
their progress and talk about the lessons they’ve learned that will help them in the future.
 Letter to your past self - have your students write about the achievements they’re proud of,
the mistakes they’ve learned from, and what they can do differently going forward. If this letter
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brings up any negative feelings for your students, remind them it’s not too late to make changes.
Help them brainstorm steps they can take to create the positive changes they’d like to see.
Thank you letter to yourself - in this letter, they write a thank you letter to themselves about the
qualities they’re happy to have, the achievements they’re proud of, and so on. An alternative to this
activity is to have students write thank you letters to important people in their lives, as practicing
gratitude boosts positive thinking and confidence. Older children may enjoy writing thank you
letters to their classmates (and reading about why their classmates feel grateful for them too).
Activity No. 3: Gratitude Journal
Objective: This exercise helps students develop a greater appreciation for the good in their life. It forces
us to pay attention to the good things in life we might otherwise take for granted. In that way, they could
start to become more attuned to the everyday sources of pleasure around us—and the emotional tone of our
life can shift in profound ways.
Instructions: There’s no wrong way to keep a gratitude journal, but here are some guidelines to help
students get started. Write down or type up to five things for which you feel grateful. You can use a
notebook, your phone’s notes application, a word processor, or whatever works best for you. The physical
record is important—don’t just do this exercise in your head. The things you list can be relatively small in
importance (“The tasty sandwich I had for lunch today”) or relatively large (“My sister gave birth to a
healthy baby boy”). The goal of the exercise is to remember a good event, experience, person, or thing in
your life—then enjoy the good emotions that come with it. As you write, consider these important
reminders: be as specific as possible., go for depth over breadth, get personal, try subtraction, not just
addition, see good things as “gifts.”, savor surprises, aim for variety, and write regularly.
Activity No. 4: Embrace the Stress
Objective: Students will also have a higher sense of self-efficacy about challenges in school when they can
interpret their body’s feedback as excitement, rather than distress, upon facing a challenge. Shifting their
mindset from stress to excitement can help students feel good about their ability to tackle what’s ahead.
Instructions:
• If you’re feeling stressed or anxious about a challenge up ahead, reframe your mindset to think of stress
as way of helping you to prepare for the task by saying to yourself: “I’m actually excited about this because
(name something good about this situation).”
• Before starting work on a challenging project, make a list of how your skills will make your success
possible. Try using If-Then statements to help you plan how you will use your skills.
 Help students practice viewing stress as a way to enhance their skills:
• To help them improve at what they’re doing
• To help them learn and grow
• To help give them the energy to stay motivated
Activity No. 5: Closing Activity: Planning for Implementation
Small group discussion:
Of the various strategies we’ve discussed today, which one(s) do you want to commit to trying?
• How might this strategy be integrated into your existing practices, strategies, or lesson planning?
• What are some challenges you anticipate for implementing this strategy into your daily
curriculum? What planning and preparation might help you overcome these challenges?
• What are areas of strength and growth, related to self-efficacy, for the different students in your
classroom?
• Think about your self-efficacy in implementing these strategies.
• What prior experiences are informing your confidence?
• What other influences can help support your own confidence in effectively helping your
students’ self-efficacy?
V.
References:
 Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York, NY: Freeman.
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01193/full#
B8
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 The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. (2013). An Introduction To
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 The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. (2013). Help Students Serve
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 The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. (2013). Use Peer Models.
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 The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. (2013). Promote Recognition
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https://nrcgt.uconn.edu/underachievement_study/self-efficacy/se_section7/
 The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. (2013). Avoid the Appearance
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https://nrcgt.uconn.edu/underachievement_study/self-efficacy/se_section6/
 The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. (2013). Help Students
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Learning.
https://www.marinschools.org/cms/lib/CA01001323/Centricity/Domain/1250/S
elf%20Efficacy%20Presentation.pdf