Davis Baker
Case Studies Master List
There is more to know than the case studies listed below, but below is a good start as far as examples
go. Below does not cover the theory behind a lot of these topics, but Mr. Ogren covered that fairly
in-depth.
When choosing case studies and examples to research - if not otherwise prescribed by your teacher keep the following in mind:
❏​ Choose local examples related to your surrounding area whenever possible
❏​ Choose places or incidents that are interesting to you - you’re more likely to remember them
❏​ Choose case studies that overlap with multiple topics to minimise the work you have to do
❏​ Example of an effective, efficient case study: The Great Barrier Reef. This case study
streamlines the studying process for exams, as it applies to…
❏​ Area of biological significance (Topic 2)
❏​ The importance of tropical biomes, endemic species/evolution(Topic 3)
❏​ Aquatic food production & societies (Topic 4)
❏​ Impacts of climate change (Topic 7)
Unit
Required Case Studies/Detailed Examples
Topic 1 Foundations
1.1 Environmental Value Systems
❏​ At least three detailed examples of how historical influences have
shaped the development of the modern environmental movement (eg.
Earth Day, Silent Spring, Chernobyl, Minamata disaster)
●​ Minamata
○​ Environmental health crisis in Japan caused by Chisso Corporation
releasing methylmercury into Minamata bay
○​ Industrial waste bioaccumulated in seafood, leading to chronic
mercury poisoning in local communities
○​ Early example of catastrophic industrial pollution
●​ Silent Spring
○​ Book by Rachel Carson that exposed the detrimental effects of
pesticides, particularly DDT, on the environment
○​ Argued that pesticides contaminated the entire food chain, killing
wildlife and causing cancer
○​ Argued that the pesticide treadmill meant that these pesticides
were already becoming ineffective
○​ Sparked a massive public outcry, leading to stricter environmental
regulations and the creation of the EPA
○​ Lead to nationwide ban on DDT for agricultural use in the United
States
●​ Chernobyl
○​ Catastrophic nuclear accident in 1986 in Ukraine
○​ During a flawed safety test, a reactor suffered a power surge and
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explosions, causing a core meltdown and released massive
amounts of radioactive material
Considered the worst nuclear accident in history
Now contained with a structure around the whole plant
Highlighted risks of nuclear energy, forced international
transparency on environmental health, and catalyzed the growth
of green political movements
Shifted environmentalism from local concerns to transnational
efforts around food and ecological safety
1.4 Sustainability
❏​ Brief examples of the following types of natural capital: renewable,
replenishable and non-renewable)
●​ Renewable: fish stocks, water, solar/wind energy
●​ Replenishable: groundwater, ozone, timber (forests)
●​ Nonrenewable: fossil fuels, minerals, non-renewable groundwater
❏​ An understanding of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and its
findings
●​ Landmark UN study analyzing how human actions have altered
ecosystems and how that has impacted human wellbeing
●​ Found that a substantial portion of ecosystem services (freshwater, fishery
supply) are being degraded or used unsustainably
●​ Ecosystem changes are increasing the likelihood of abrupt, nonlinear
changes
●​ Recommended reversing degradation (would require significant policy
changes)
●​ Provides a baseline for sustainable management of our natural resources
1.5 Pollution
❏​ An understanding of the origins, uses and consequences of DDT for
ecosystems and human systems
●​ Synthetic organochlorine pesticide developed to combat Malaria and
Typhus (insect borne diseases)
●​ Banned in 1972 for its catastrophic consequences (bioaccumulation,
thinning bird eggshells, and potential carcinogenicity in humans)
●​ Widely used in 1950s-60s on cotton, soybeans, peanuts, and tomatoes
●​ Highly persistent, breaking down slowly and accumulating in fatty tissues
●​ Considered an endocrine disruptor, causes cancer, and can be passed to
infants through breastmilk
●​ Restricted almost everywhere but allowed in specific regions to control
malaria
●​ Many insects have developed resistance due to indiscriminate use
Topic 2 Ecosystems &
ecology
2.1 Species and Populations
❏​ Example of fundamental niche vs. realised niche
●​ Chthalamus is a barnacle that is physically capable of living across the
entire rock face in the intertidal zone. If it’s the only species it occupies
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everything
●​ Balanus gulanda is a larger barnacle that outcompetes Chthamalus in the
low tide zone, so Chthalamus is forced to live only in the high tide zone
❏​ Examples with named species of each of the following population
interactions: predation, herbivory, parasitism, mutualism, disease,
competition
●​ Predation: lynx hunting snowshoe hares in the arctic, wolves hunting
moose, and bears consuming salmon
●​ Herbivory: bison eating grass (grazing), giraffes eating tree leaves
(browsing)
●​ Parasitism: ticks feeding on mammals, tapeworms in digestive tracts,
aphids eating plant sap
●​ Mutualism: bees and flowers (bees gain food (nectar/pollen) and flowers
get pollinated), clownfish and sea anemones (clownfish are protected and
anemones get cleaned)
●​ Disease: canine distemper virus in African wild dogs. Transmitted from
surrounding populations of domesticated dogs, decimated wild dogs in
the Serengeti from 1991-1992
●​ Cheetahs and Lions in Africa compete for the same food source (gazelle)
and Lions may kill Cheetahs for the food (interspecific competition), Male
elephant seals battle for dominance and breeding rights (intraspecific
competition)
2.2 Communities and Ecosystems
❏​ Named examples of a food chain involving: producers, consumers and
decomposers
●​ Savannah grass --> zebra --> lion --> fungi/bacteria/earthworms
❏​ Named example(s) to explain bioaccumulation and biomagnification
●​ Mercury in aquatic food chains (mercury enters from pollution,
plankton/bacteria convert it into methylmercury, which are then eaten by
small fish, and apex predators like tuna, swordfish, and sharks have high
levels of mercury). Mercury then biomagnifies in the tuna, swordfish, and
sharks
●​ DDT in birds of prey (insects and small organisms consume DDT, small fish
eat the insects, DDT accumulates in their fatty tissues, bald eagles,
ospreys, and peregrine falcons eat contaminated fish accumulating high
levels of DDT, causing them to lay eggs with dangerously thin shells)
2.3 Flows of Energy and Matter
❏​ One detailed example of how human activities impact energy flows and
matter cycling (eg. deforestation, combustion of fossil fuels)
●​ Deforestation (replacing tropical rainforest with low-productivity cattle
pasture) removes producers, reducing NPP, less solar energy is converted
into biomass
●​ Burning fossil fuels (transfers carbon from long term underground storage
into the atmosphere as CO2, driving climate change). Deforestation
reduces photosynthesis, removing CO2. Ocean acidification leads to excess
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CO2 absorption, disrupting carbon cycling by marine organisms that need
carbonate to build shells (ex coral reefs)
●​ Use of nitrogen/phosphorus fertilizers leads to eutrophication (massive
algal blooms that die, decompose, and create hypoxic dead zones with O2
depletion). The Haber-Bosch process fixes atmospheric nitrogen into
usable compounds, doubling the amount of nitrogen entering the
biosphere. Livestock waste is high nitrogen which enters water systems
causing eutrophication
●​ Dam construction disrupts flow rates and storage, often drying up
wetlands, reducing water cycling capacity and lowering groundwater
levels (aquifer completion). Urbanization replaces natural soil with
concrete and other impervious surfaces reducing infiltration, increasing
runoff, and altering local transpiration rates.
2.4 Biomes, Zonation, Succession
❏​ One case study of zonation
●​ Rocky shore intertidal zonation
○​ Splash Zone: Top area, barely submerged; inhabitants like lichens
and small snails.
○​ High Tide Zone: Frequently exposed to air; dominated by
barnacles, limpets, and mussels.
○​ Middle Tide Zone: Submerged and exposed alternately; covered by
seaweed and chitons.
○​ Low Tide Zone: Almost always submerged; home to sea stars,
anemones, and kelp.
●​ Mountain altitude zonation: as altitude increases, temperature decreases
and moisture changes, creating bands of vegetation. Deciduous trees are
at the base and alpine tundra is at the peak
❏​ One case study with named pioneer, intermediate and climax species for
primary succession
●​ Surtsey Island, Iceland
○​ Underwater volcanic eruption forms new island. Surface was pure
sterile volcanic rock
○​ Pioneer species like bacteria, fungi, lichens, mosses, and mold
established in tiny cracks, weathering the rock
○​ Intermediate species such as sea rocket, plants die and contribute
their organic matter to create shallow soil. Sea grasses and small
shrubs like dwarf willows start to arrive
○​ Trending towards stable maritime grassland community, birds like
seagulls are there
❏​ One case study with named pioneer, intermediate and climax species for
secondary succession
●​ Yellowstone national park after the fire
○​ Pioneer species: fast growing grasses, weeds, and fireweed
stabilize the soil which was still there after the fire
○​ Intermediate species like small shrubs, aspen trees, and lodgepole
pine
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○​ Climax species: spruce, fir and pine forest is re-established
❏​ Named species for compare and contrast between r- and k-strategists
●​ R-strategists: bacteria, flies, mosquitoes, locusts, dandelions, mice,
rabbits, rats, oysters
●​ K-strategists: large mammals (african elephants, humans), whales, trees,
eagles
❏​ Explain the distributions, structure, biodiversity and relative productivity
of two pairs of contrasting biomes (eg. tropical vs. temperate forest,
desert vs. tundra)
1.Tropical Rainforest
●​ Distribution: Equatorial (0-10° N/S), e.g., Amazon, Congo Basin.
●​ Structure: High, dense, multi-layered canopy (4–5 layers). Large trees,
buttress roots, lianas, and epiphytes.
●​ Biodiversity: Extremely high (highest on Earth).
●​ Productivity: Extremely high Net Primary Productivity (
●​ ). Rapid growth year-round.
●​ Nutrients: Rapid decomposition means most nutrients are held in biomass,
not the soil.
2. Desert
●​ Distribution: 30° N/S of the equator (sinking air). e.g., Sahara, Kalahari.
●​ Structure: Sparse, specialized vegetation (xerophytes). Succulents (store
water), deep roots, or short life cycles.
●​ Biodiversity: Low; specialized to survive extreme heat and drought.
●​ Productivity: Very low
●​ . Limited by lack of water.
●​ Nutrients: Mostly found in the soil, low decomposition rates.
3. Tundra
●​ Distribution: High latitudes (Arctic circles), high altitude.
●​ Structure: Treeless, dominated by mosses, lichens, and low shrubs.
Permafrost (frozen subsoil) prevents deep root growth.
●​ Biodiversity: Low; few species are adapted to cold/short growing season.
●​ Productivity: Low
●​ . Growth is limited to a few summer weeks.
●​ Nutrients: Low decomposition rates due to cold, resulting in large amounts
of stored organic matter (peat).
4. Temperate Deciduous Forest
●​ Distribution: Mid-latitudes (30-50° N/S), e.g., Western Europe, Eastern US.
●​ Structure: Distinct layers (canopy, understory, shrub, ground).
Broad-leaved trees that shed leaves in winter.
●​ Biodiversity: Moderate to High.
●​ Productivity: Moderate to High; seasonal growth.
●​ Nutrients: High rates of decomposition in autumn lead to deep,
nutrient-rich soils.
2.5 Investigating Ecosystems
❏​ Understanding of minimum five abiotic components of ecosystems and
their corresponding evaluating measures
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Topic 3 Biodiversity &
conservation
3.2 Origins of Biodiversity
❏​ Examples of the causes of the five major extinctions
●​ End-Ordovician caused by intense glaciation (global cooling), leading to
dramatic fall in sea levels, destroying marine organism habitat
●​ Late Devonian caused by severe climate change, widespread ocean anoxia
(lack of oxygen), potential impact of volcanic activity
●​ Permian-Triassic caused by massive volcanic eruptions in Siberia resulting
in extreme global warming, ocean acidification, and ocean anoxia
●​ Triassic-Jurassic triggered by massive sustained volcanic eruptions that
broke apart Pangea, causing climate change and ocean acidification
●​ Cretaceous-Paleogene caused by massive asteroid impact which caused
immediate destruction followed by long-term cooling from dust and debris
blocking the sun
3.3 Threats to Biodiversity
❏​ Three detailed case studies of three different species: one that has
become extinct due to human activity, another that is critically
endangered, and a third species whose conservation status has been
improved by intervention
❏​ Include information about the species ecological role, the
pressures on the species, consequences of extinction and species
restoration strategies
●​ Passenger Pigeon: once most abundant bird in North America, mass
hunting for cheap food in late 19th century, habitat loss from massive
deforestation for agriculture destroyed breeding grounds, population was
easy to locate and destroy because they nested in massive colonies
●​ Sumatran Orangutan: indonesian island of sumatra, habitat loss of
tropical forests into palm oil plantations, agriculture, and mining. Illegal
trade and capture of infants for pet trade, slow reproduction rates make
recovery difficult. Created national parks to protect remaining forests,
rehabilitation centers rescuing captive orangutans and releasing them
back into the wild, protection against hunting and trading under CITES
and national laws
●​ Bald Eagle - 1972 ban on DDT which caused thin eggshells and passage of
Bald Eagle Protection Act, highlights importance of legislation and
pollution control on species survival
●​ Giant Panda, Southern White Rhinoceros
●​ Arabian Oryx (medium sized antelope) - ex situ conservation (breeding at
Phoenix zoo) in 1960s, followed by reintroduction into protected habitats in
Oman and Saudi Arabia
❏​ Example of a conflict between exploitation, sustainable development
and conservation (eg. CAMPFIRE initiative in Zimbabwe)
●​ Initiative that empowers rural communities to manage their resources for
economic gain. Provides tangible financial benefits for sustainable
utilization like trophy hunting of elephants. Has faced criticism regarding
reliance on hunting and experienced issues with benefit distribution.
❏​ One detailed case study of the threats to biodiversity from human
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activity in a given natural area of biological significance or conservation
area (can be a tropical ecosystem like the Great Barrier Reef to apply to
the following bullet point as well)
●​ The Great Barrier Reef
○​ 1500+ fish species, 400+ coral species and high productivity
○​ Rising sea temperatures cause mass bleaching with 50% coral loss
since 1990s
○​ Ocean acidification inhibits coral skeleton growth
○​ Pollution and nitrogen rich runoff increase outbreaks of
crown-of-thorns starfish which eat coral
○​ Coastal development and overfishing damages ecosystem
resilience
○​ Great barrier reef marine park authority manages park
establishing zones to restrict fishing and industrial activity
○​ Project focuses on breeding heat-tolerant corals and managing
starfish populations
○​ Limited by global carbon emissions causing ocean warming
❏​ One detailed case study of the impact of human activity on the
biodiversity of tropical biomes and the conflict between exploitation,
sustainable development and conservation in tropical biomes.
3.4 Conservation of Biodiversity
❏​ One detailed case study evaluating the success of a protected area
●​ Chitwan National Park in Nepal
○​ Local communities are involved in conservation management,
turning them into partners
○​ Buffer zone exists to provide communities with resources (timber)
which reduces pressure on protected core habitat
○​ Funding from international organizations and income from
ecotourism provides sustained resources for management
○​ Successful protection has allowed significant recovery of tiger and
rhino populations
●​ Yellowstone National Park
○​ In-situ conservation, protecting entire ecosystems
○​ Protects iconic species like grizzly bears and wolves,
demonstrating value of large-scale habitat management
❏​ Examples of named keystone and charismatic species
●​ Keystone species: sea otters (keeps sea urchin population in check, keeps
kelp forests healthy). African elephants (prevent savannah from becoming
a dense woodland, allows grass eating herbivores to thrive). Gray Wolves
(keep elk population in check, reduced grazing pressure allows willow and
aspen trees to regrow along riverbanks, which returns beaver populations
and increases biodiversity)
●​ Charismatic species: giant panda, tiger, african elephant, mountain
gorilla, polar bear, gray wolf, koala
Topic 4 - Water
4.1 Introduction to Water Systems
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❏​ One detailed example of human influence on the hydrological cycle with
regards to agriculture, deforestation and/or urbanisation (eg. the
Colorado River and agriculture)
●​ Colorado River System
○​ Depleted surface water and zero flow to sea: Hoover Dam and all
american canal divert water to california and arizona for
irrigation, river frequently fails to reach its natural delta in the gulf
of california
○​ Huge storage lakes (Lake Mead and Lake Powell) created by
damming have increased surface water area, leading to massive
losses via evaporation, reducing total available water
○​ Surface water is over allocated, so agriculture relies heavily on
groundwater, meaning groundwater is being depleted
○​ Dams prevent natural seasonal flooding, trapping sediment and
preventing the river from replenishing ecosystems downstream
4.2 Access to Freshwater
❏​ One detailed case study of how shared freshwater resources have given
rise to international conflict (eg. the Nile Basin conflict)
●​ Nile Basin Conflict
○​ Dispute focuses on Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD), a
multi-billion dollar hydroelectric dam
○​ Ethiopian view: they generate 85% of the nile’s flow, GERD is vital
for energy independence, they have a right to economic
development
○​ Egyptian view: egypt relies on the nile for 95% of its freshwater
needs, GERD is an existential threat, they fear it will reduce water
flow and cripple agriculture and population centers
○​ Sudanese position: middle ground, faces potential risks from dam
failure, benefits from controlled floods and sedimentation for its
own dams
○​ 1929/1959 agreements give Egypt power over Nile water and give
veto rights to any upstream projects
○​ Ethiopia thinks these agreements are unfair and neocolonial
○​ Ethiopia began construction without an agreed upon
management plan causing mass panic in Egypt
○​ All basin countries have fast growing populations placing strain on
limited water resources
○​ Climate change is affecting Nile flow rate leading to uncertainty
○​ Egypt states that reductions in water share are a direct threat to
national security
○​ Core dispute over how fast the dam is filled, faster filling means
less water for Egypt
○​ Binding agreement has not been found yet
○​ Rapid filling could cut Egypt’s water supply significantly, forcing
up to 24% unemployment
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4.3 Aquatic Food Production Systems
❏​ One detailed case study of the controversial harvesting of a named
species (eg. whales and Inuit hunting)
Whales and Inuit hunting
●​ Tradition
○​ Inuit have been hunting whales for a long time
○​ They usually use traditional methods (harpoons)
○​ Central to Inuit identity and social cohesion
●​ Why it’s controversial
○​ IWC enforced a whaling moratorium in 1986 banning all whaling
to help population recovery
○​ Hunts can be considered inhumane
○​ Using modern technology and selling whale products blurs the line
between traditional subsistence and commercial harvesting
○​ Many whales are often struck by harpoons but die elsewhere
●​ 1977 Bowhead Controversy
○​ IWC called for total ban to save the species
○​ Inuit argued that the survey of population was faulty, losing the
hunt would destroy their culture
○​ IWC backed down, permitted a restricted, quota-based hunt
●​ Currently right to harvest is acknowledged but is heavily restricted
❏​ One detailed case study of unsustainable fishing and associated fishery
management strategies (eg. Bluefin Tuna)
Bluefin Tuna
●​ Why Bluefin?
○​ Highly sought after for high end sushi and sashimi markets
○​ Highly vulnerable to overfishing as organisms that mature late
and spawn in specific areas
○​ Modernization of fishing technology allowed for massive extinction
●​ Unsustainable fishing from 1980-2000s
○​ Catch limits set higher than recommended by scientists
○​ Illegal and unreported catches
○​ Stock biomass had declined dramatically by 2007, poster child for
consequences of overfishing
●​ Fishery recovery strategies
○​ Drastic reduction in quotas
○​ Increasing minimum size limits for caught fish
○​ Spatial and temporal closures (shrinking fishing season)
○​ Aerial spotter technology to locate tuna schools was banned
○​ Mandatory observers on large vessels
○​ Satellite monitoring to catch vessels
❏​ One detailed case study of the impacts of aquaculture (eg. shrimp
farming in Thailand)
Shrimp Farming in Thailand
●​ Shrimp aquaculture has grown rapidly, using lots of modern technology
●​ Contributed to destruction of mangrove biomes, removing crucial habitats
and coastal protection
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●​ Discharge of effluent from farms has degraded water quality and caused
eutrophication
●​ Intensive operations use chemicals and antibiotics which pollute
groundwater and surrounding ecosystems
●​ Lead to major disease outbreaks within the population (Yellow Head Virus
and White Spot Syndrome Virus)
●​ Saltwater farms seep into surrounding land, causing soil degradation and
restricting agricultural use
●​ Adoption of closed loop systems and water treatment protocols along with
regulation has helped to make these more sustainable
4.4 Water Pollution
❏​ Examples of both freshwater and marine pollution
Freshwater
●​ Nutrient pollution (eutrophication): runoff containing fertilizers (nitrates
and phosphates) from farms into the Ganges River (India) leading to algal
blooms and oxygen depletion
●​ Sewage and pathogens in untreated domestic wastewater is discharged
into the Nile River introducing coliform bacteria
●​ Minamata Bay and release of toxic metals
●​ Mining activity (acid mine drainage): acidic water, high in heavy metals,
drains from abandoned coal mines into local streams in Appalachia
●​ Thermal pollution: heated water discharged from nuclear power plants
into Germany’s Rhine River, reducing water’s ability to hold dissolved
oxygen
Marine
●​ Oil Spills (deepwater horizon oil spill released 4.9 million barrels of crude
oil into the gulf of mexico, harming seabirds, mammals, and coral reefs)
●​ Plastic pollution (great pacific garbage patch where currents accumulate
high concentrations of floating plastic, causing entanglement and
ingestion issues for turtles and seabirds)
●​ Aquaculture pollution (salmon cages in Chile’s coastal waters) nutrient
enrichment causing eutrophication
●​ Noise pollution (high intensity sonar from military vessels or shipping
traffic) disrupting communication and migration of whales and dolphins in
Atlantic ocean
●​ Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) PCBs accumulate in the blubber of
marine mammals like killer whales, causing infertility and immune system
suppression
❏​ One example explaining the process and impacts eutrophication (eg. the
eutrophication of Lake Erie)
Eutrophication of Lake Erie
●​ Excessive phosphorus and nitrogen enter lake erie (mainly from
agricultural runoff), sewage treatment plants, and fertilizer use. Maumee
river is a major contributor, draining 4 million acres of cropland into
western basin
●​ Algal bloom growth occurs in the summer months when high phosphorus
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Topic 5 - Soils
levels combine with calm warm water to create ideal conditions for
cyanobacteria to multiply rapidly
When massive algal blooms die they sink to the bottom. Bacteria
decompose the dead algae, a process that consumes massive amounts of
dissolved oxygen, leading to hypoxia or anoxia at the lake bottom
In oxygen deprived conditions chemical reactions in the sediment release
phosphorus previously stored in the mud, causing further self-sustaining
algae growth even if external nutrients are gone
Causes drinking water contamination (Toledo, Ohio people didn’t have tap
water for 3 days)
Bottom hypoxia kills benthic organisms creating a dead zone in the central
basin
Negatively impacts the tourism industry ($12.9 billion dollars) causing
beach closures, reducing property values, and forcing millions of dollars to
be spent on water treatment
Return of algal blooms since 1990s indicates that agricultural practices
and climate change are creating new challenges for the lake
5.2 Terrestrial Food Production Systems and Food Choices
❏​ Two detailed case studies of contrasting food production systems
comparing the inputs, outputs, system characteristics, environmental
impacts, and socio-cultural systems (eg. industrial beef farming vs.
traditional Maasai livestock)
Industrial Beef Farming (USA)
●​ Inputs: high fossil fuel energy, imported grain feed (corn), antibiotics,
growth hormones, veterinary care, heavy machinery, intensive irrigation
for feed crops
●​ Outputs: large quantities of beef, low unit price, high methane and CO2
emissions, significant water pollution (nitrogen/phosphorus),
antimicrobial resistance risks, high fat content meet
●​ Characteristics: sedentary/confined (feedlots/CAFOs), high stocking
density, short animal lifespan
●​ Environmental impacts: high greenhouse gas footprint, deforestation for
feed, soil compaction from animals, excessive water use for irrigation
●​ Socio-cultural systems: market driven, specialized labor, disconnect
between consumers and production, focused on fast profit
Traditional Maasai Livestock (East Africa)
●​ Inputs: nature pasture (grazing) water from local sources, family labor,
limited veterinary support, hardy indigenous breeds
●​ Outputs: meat, milk, blood (food), manure (fertilizer), hides, high social
value, low environmental pollution
●​ Characteristics: nomadic (transhumance), extensive land use, low stocking
density, longer animal lifespan
●​ Environmental impacts: potential for localized overgrazing during
droughts, generally carbon neutral or positive through soil carbon
sequestration
●​ Socio-cultural systems: subsistence/cultural value, cattle as wealth and
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status, community-managed land, gender-defined roles
5.3 Soil Degradation and Conservation
❏​ Examples of the differences between industrial and subsistence farming
systems
●​ Industrial systems degrade soil faster through intensive methods
●​ Subsistence systems have lower, more localized impacts, may suffer from
nutrient depletion over time
Topic 6 Atmosphere
6.2 Stratospheric Ozone
❏​ One detailed case study evaluating the role of national and international
organizations in reducing the emissions of ozone-depleting substances
(eg. the Montreal Protocol)
The Montreal Protocol
●​ In 1970s and 80s they discovered that CFCs (refrigeration, air conditioning,
aerosols) were destroying stratospheric ozone, leading to increased UV
radiation
●​ UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) facilitated negotiations and
implemented the precautionary principle (idea that we’re going to act to
prevent harm despite some scientific uncertainty)
●​ EPA advocated for strong controls, regulated chemical companies, created
licensing system for imports/exports, and implemented bans on venting
ODS during servicing
●​ Countries had different phase out programs (Japan used producer
responsibility programs, Canada decreased production)
●​ Included trade restrictions against non-parties, creating strong incentive
for nations to join
●​ Industry produced alternatives like HCFCs and HFCs
●​ US promoted commercialization of energy-efficient refrigerators, creating
demand for alternatives
●​ Environmental success, ozone is expected to recover by 2040
●​ Significantly mitigated climate change since many ODSs are also potent
greenhouse gases
●​ Extended to phase out HFCs (powerful greenhouse gases)
6.4 Acid Deposition
❏​ Examples of the impacts of acid deposition on aquatic, terrestrial and
human systems
Aquatic systems
●​ Low pH kills fish and inhibits hatching. Leached aluminum from the soil
clogs fish gills, causing asphyxiation
●​ Sensitive species like Mayflies and crayfish disappear first, breaking food
chain for trout, bass, and loons
●​ High elevation lakes (Adirondacks, NY) often suffer chronic acidity. Rapid
snowmelt can cause acid shocks that kill organisms rapidly
●​ Increased acidity can clear water but cause a shift towards acid tolerant
species like Sphagnum moss, leading to simpler, less resilient ecosystems
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Terrestrial systems
●​ Leaches essential nutrients like calcium and magnesium from the soil
●​ Unlocks toxic aluminum from soil particles, damaging tree root systems
and preventing water uptake
●​ High elevation spruce and fir forests (Green Mountains, VT) are affected by
acid fog, which strips nutrients directly from needles and leaves
●​ Weakened trees become more susceptible to insects, diseases, and
extreme winter cold
Human systems
●​ Acid rain dissolves limestone and marble, destroying details on
monuments and statues (Taj Mahal). Accelerates rusting of steel bridges
and structures
●​ SO2 and NOx form fine sulfate/nitrate particles. When inhaled, these cause
heart attacks, asthma, and chronic bronchitis
●​ Particles and gases create haze that reduces visibility in national parks
(Shenandoah, Great Smoky Mountains)
●​ Acidification can leach heavy metals (lead or copper) from old pipes into
drinking water
Topic 7 Climate change
& energy
7.1 Energy Sources and Security
❏​ Detailed examples of the advantages and disadvantages of various
energy sources, including: non-renewables (oil, coal, gas, nuclear) and
renewables (solar, wind, hydro, tidal, biomass, geothermal)
Renewable
Coal
Oil
Natural Gas
Nuclear
Pros
Abundant
supply globally,
low cost per
kWh, reliable
base-load power
Highly versatile
(fuel, plastics,
heating), easy to
transport and
store
Cleaner burning
than coal/oil,
flexible, reliable
High energy
density,
zero-carbon
electricity
production,
reliable
baseload power
Cons
Highest carbon
emissions,
mining ruins
landscapes,
emits
mercury/sulfur,
causes severe air
pollution
Major source of
greenhouse
gases, oil spills
damage marine
life, volatile
pricing, finite
Methane
leakage,
fracking causes
water pollution
and
earthquakes,
finite
High capital
cost, radioactive
waste storage
risks, risk of
meltdowns,
uranium is
non-renewable
Example
Coal fired
powerplant in
India providing
cheap electricity
to a city while
causing local air
pollution
Gasoline used in
cars contributes
to CO2 emissions
and urban smog
Natural gas fired
“peaker” plant
ramping up
power on a
cloudy day to
supplement
solar
France using
nuclear power
for >70% of its
electricity with
low carbon
emissions
Non-Renewable
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Pros
Cons
Example
Solar
Abundant, lowest
operating costs,
reduces utility bills,
silent
Intermittent (none at
night), high initial
panel cost, requires
large space for farms
Residential rooftops in
Arizona supplying
power to homes and
feeding excess energy
back to the grid
Wind
Cleanest source (no
waste/emissions), low
operating costs,
sustainable
Intermittent,
noise/visual pollution
Massive offshore wind
farms in the North
Sea producing
significant power for
European countries
Hydro
Highly
reliable/predictable,
fast response to
demand, long-lived
infrastructure, creates
reservoirs for water
Massive
environmental impact
on river ecosystems,
displaces human
communities,
dependent on rainfall
Three gorges dam in
China providing
massive amounts of
renewable energy
Tidal
Highly predictable,
immense power
potential, no carbon
emissions
Extremely high
installation costs,
limited suitable sites,
marine environment
corrosion
La Rance tidal plant
in France operating
for decades
Biomass
Can be carbon neutral
if managed, uses
waste products,
provides reliable
power
High land use, can
cause deforestation,
burning releases
pollution
Burning wood pellets
or waste agricultural
materials to heat
buildings
Geothermal
Extremely reliable
and consistent, small
footprint on land,
high efficiency
Geographically
limited (works best
near tectonic plate
boundaries), high
upfront costs,
potential for minor
earthquakes
Iceland uses
geothermal energy
for home heating and
electricity needs
❏​ One detailed case study of the energy security and strategies of a given
country (eg. Ethiopia, Denmark)
Denmark
●​ Context and evolution
○​ 1973 oil crisis where 90% of Denmark’s energy was imported
○​ Country implemented systematic overall
○​ Pivoted from centralized fossil fuel plants to decentralized energy,
over 4000 small-scale generators today
○​ Renewable generation (wind and solar) met national demand at
nearly all times for a month (March 2025)
○​ Significantly reduced coal consumption, last remaining coal plant
scheduled to cease operations by 2029
●​ Key strategies
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○​ Pioneer in offshore wind (1,000 MW Thor wind farm). Use energy
islands in North and Baltic seas to aggregate wind energy and
send it across europe
○​ More than 60% of Danish homes are connected to district heating,
which uses waste heat from electricity production
○​ Denmark has high taxes on fossil fuels that send money into
renewable research
○​ Balances variable wind power with exporting excess electricity
and importing during low-production periods through connections
with Germany, Sweden, and Norway
●​ Future goals
○​ 70% reduction in greenhouse gas levels since 1990 by 2030
○​ Climate neutrality by 2045
○​ Strategic focus on using surplus electricity to produce green
hydrogen and fuels for shipping and aviation that are hard to
electrify
○​ Investing in physical protection and cybersecurity for the national
grid
●​ Challenges and lessons
○​ Increased turbine size led to social pushback
○​ Rapid expansion in offshore wind faces challenges in supply
chains for parts
○​ Wind energy is high, wind produces intermittently and requires
investment in storage solutions
7.2 Climate Change Causes & Impacts
❏​ Two detailed examples of the impacts of climate change (whether
beneficial/adverse) in different countries, including: changes in water
availability, distribution of biomes and crop growing areas, loss of
biodiversity and ecosystem services, coastal inundation, ocean
acidification, and damage to human health.
Brazil (amazon basin and agriculture)
●​ Severe droughts have reduced major reservoir capacities below 20%,
reducing hydroelectric energy generation and irrigation systems
●​ Warmer climates are probably going to replace tropical forests with
savannah in eastern Amazonia. Threatens habitat of Royal Bengal Tiger in
the Sunderbans and other endemic species
●​ Coffee maize and cocoa yields are declining due to heat stress and erratic
rainfall (economic losses exceeded $74 billion between 2013 and 2023)
●​ Rising sea levels threaten coastal cities like Recife and Rio de Janeiro,
risking saltwater intrusion into drinking water and infrastructure damage
●​ Wildfire smoke in the amazon causes severe respiratory issues. Warm
humid conditions are also expanding range of vector-borne illnesses like
Zika and Chikungunya
Australia (marine ecosystems and arid lands)
●​ 1/3 of the great barrier reef has died from mass bleaching from ocean
warming. Acidification has weakened calcium carbonate shells
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●​ 2019/20 bushfires affected nearly 3 billion animals, pushing some species
towards extinction
●​ Southwestern Australia is experiencing a shift in growing seasons with
wheat barley and fruit crops becoming vulnerable to prolonged dry spells
●​ Sea level rise and frequent storm surges threaten low-lying coastal real
estate and critical infrastructure
●​ Extreme heatwaves pose lethal risks. Increased particulate matter from
massive bushfires has caused significant respiratory health crises in
Sydney and Melbourne and other major cities
❏​ Two detailed examples of contrasting viewpoints on climate change,
namely Al Gore, The Stern Report
Al Gore (An Inconvenient Truth)
●​ Climate change is a moral imperative and planetary emergency requiring
urgent action
●​ Collusion between earth and us is accelerating driven by population
growth and a way of thinking that disregards long term consequences
●​ Focuses on moral duty to future generations
●​ Emphasized massive melting in greenland/antarctica, species extinction,
extreme weather
●​ Advocated for carbon emission cap, tax pollution rather than labor, bypass
diplomatic delays, inspire individual actions (recycling)
Stern Review: Climate Change as Market Failure
●​ Positioned climate change as the greatest market failure ever
●​ Benefits of strong early action to cut emissions far outweigh the costs of
inaction, delaying action is more expensive than acting now
●​ Focused on economic risk management rather than moral obligation
●​ Establish global carbon price, technology policies, energy efficiency laws
●​ Rigorous economic analysis
7.3 Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation
❏​ Examples of carbon dioxide removal techniques (UN-REDD, biomass,
CSS)
●​ UN-REDD and Ecosystems
○​ Planting trees in new areas (aforestation) or degraded areas
(reforestation) to help capture CO2 as they grow
○​ “Reducing emissions from deforestaton and forest degredation”
(UN-REDD) incentivizees developing countries to conserve forests,
protecting stored carbon from being released
○​ No till farming, cover cropping, and rotating crops to increase
carbon stored in soil organic matter
○​ Restoring coastal ecosystems (mangroves, seagrass meadows,
and tidal marshes) highly efficient at trapping carbon in
waterlogged soils
○​ Re-wetting drained peatlands to stop them from decomposing
and releasing massive amounts of stored carbon
●​ Biomass based solutions
○​ Cultivating fast growing plants that capture CO2 through
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photosynthesis, burning them for electricity, capturing the
emissions to store underground
○​ Heating biomass in low-oxygen environments to create stable
charcoal-like materials that can be added to soil for long-term
sequestration and soil improvement
○​ Using sustainably harvested wood for construction to store carbon
for decades rather than letting it decompose
○​ Growing seaweed in the ocean and sinking it into the deep sea,
where the carbon stays locked away for centuries
○​ Collecting agricultural residues or dead wood and burying them
under impermeable clay to prevent decomposition and CO2
release
●​ CSS and Engineered solutions
○​ DACCS (Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage): Using massive
fans with chemical sorbents or solvents to capture CO2 directly
from ambient air, then storing it in underground geological
formations.
○​ Enhanced Rock Weathering (Mineralization): Spreading finely
crushed rocks (like basalt or olivine) over land, which react with
atmospheric CO2 to convert it into stable carbonate minerals.
○​ Carbonated Materials: Reacting captured CO2 with industrial
waste (such as steel slag or concrete waste) to create solid, stable
materials for use in construction.
○​ Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement: Adding alkaline materials to the
ocean to counteract acidification and enable the ocean to absorb
more CO2 from the atmosphere.
❏​ Two detailed examples of mitigation AND adaptation strategies in a
named city/country (eg. the Thames Barrier in London)
Thames Barrier
●​ Built to protect 1.3 million people from sea-level rise and storm surges
●​ Barrier is 10 movable gates spanning the Thames, when closed during
high surges it prevents flooding, can be opened to allow river traffic and
natural flow
●​ Has been closed over 220 times, protecting London from extreme tidal
surge
Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ)
●​ Part of London’s commitment to reduce greenhouse gases
●​ Requires vehicles to meet strict emissions standards to pay a daily charge
to travel within the central area, encouraging the use of public transport,
electric vehicles, and cycling
●​ Directly curbs CO2 emissions and improves air quality by reducing
pollutants like NO2
❏​ Detailed examples of international efforts to address climate change,
including: the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the IPCC
IPCC
●​ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
●​ Reviews scientific research papers
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●​ Confirmed with high confidence that human activities have unquevocally
caused global warming
Kyoto Protocol (1997)
●​ First major international agreement to mandate legally binding emission
reductions for industrialized nations
●​ Only wealthy industrialized countries were required to cut emissions
●​ Created carbon markets, allowing countries to trade emission credits
●​ Global emissions continued to rise as China and India (developing
countries when ratified) and the US (never ratified) were not bound by the
cuts
Paris Agreement (2015)
●​ Replaced Kyoto and shifted to universal model where all countries commit
to action
●​ Each country submits Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) which
are individual self made plans for climate action updated every five years
●​ Wealthier nations committed to using $100 billion to help developing
countries transition to clean energy and adapt to climate impacts
Topic 8 - Human 8.1 Human Population Dynamics
systems
❏​ Brief examples of HICs/LICs and countries at each stage of the
demographic transition model (country names will suffice)
●​ HICs: USA, UK, Japan, Germany, Singapore
●​ LICs: Afghanistan, Niger, Somalia, Central African Republic, Yemen
●​ Stage 1
○​ Remote tribes pre 1750
●​ Stage 2
○​ Niger, Afghanistan, Yemen, DR Congo
●​ Stage 3
○​ India, Brazil, Mexico, Kenya, Colombia
●​ Stage 4
○​ USA, UK, China, Canada Australia
●​ Stage 5
○​ Japan, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Croatia
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❏​ 2 case studies on population policies (pro-natalist & anti-natalist) and
the impact they had on human population dynamics and growth (eg.
China, Singapore)
Antinatalist: China one child policy
●​ Government instituted strict restrictions, offering incentives for one child
and severe fines penalties and forced sterilization for having more
●​ Estimated to have prevented 400 million births, significantly slowing
population growth
●​ High elderly dependency ratio as fewer people were being born to replace
the current workforce
●​ High male based sex ratio at birth because of a cultural preference for
boys
●​ Policy was phased out (two child policy in 2016, three child policy in 2021),
fertility rates still remain low
Pronatalist: Singapore (marriage and parenthood package)
●​ Encouraging couples to have three or more children
●​ Significant cash bonuses, extended maternity/paternity leave, tax rebates
●​ Limited impact on fertility, dropping to 1.1 or lower
●​ Not been able to fix impending labor shortage or aging population
problems
●​ Struggles against cultural shifts favoring smaller families and lower
marriage rates
8.2 Resource Use in Society
❏​ Brief examples of the four types of ecosystem services (supporting,
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regulating, provisioning, cultural) with a basic understanding of their
importance
Provisioning (tangible products)
●​ Food (fish, crops, wild berries), fresh water, timber, fiber (cotton wool),
medicinal plants, wood fuel
●​ Form basis of economy, diet and shelter, could not survive
Regulating (natural processes)
●​ Pollination of crops, water purification by wetlands, carbon storage in
forests, flood control by mangroves, pest control by birds/bats
●​ Keep ecosystems functional, clean, and safe, reducing hazards like floods
and diseases, help to mitigate climate change
Cultural (non material benefits)
●​ Hiking swimming, aesthetic appreciation of landscapes, spiritual/sacred
sites, ecotourism, mental health benefits of nature
●​ Provide mental wellness, cultural identity, and educational opportunities
Supporting (fundamental processes)
●​ Photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, soil formation, habitat provision for
biodiversity, water cycling
●​ Foundation of all ecosystems, without supporting services the other
services would not exist
❏​ 1 case study each of a non-renewable and renewable resource & how it
is dynamic and has changed over time
Crude Oil in the US
●​ Between 1970 and 2008, US crude oil production fell as conventional wells
were depleted. Technological innovations like horizontal drilling and
fracking turned the US into the world’s leading oil producer by 2014
●​ Petroleum consumption peaked in US in 2004-05. By 2014 it was slightly
below 1997 levels due to increased fuel efficiency standards and cleaner
alternatives
●​ Changed the US from major importer to a net exporter of petroleum
products by 2020 (still net importer of crude oil)
●​ Industry has moved to deeper offshore drilling and harder to extract
sources like oil sands, increasing environmental risks and carbon
emissions
Solar Energy in the US
●​ Technology has evolved from rare high cost cells to mainstream energy
source
●​ Shift from niche applications to utility-scale
●​ Advancements in technology have improved efficiency, moving from older
poly-crystalline cells to mono-crystalline and developing flexibile thin-film
options
●​ Industry is moving from just providing energy to including battery storage
as standard, reducing intermittency issue
●​ Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 drastically increased investment in solar
8.3 Solid Domestic Waste
❏​ Detailed examples of the pros & cons of the 4 main types of solid
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domestic waste disposal options (landfills, incinerators, composting, the
6Rs)
Pros
Cons
Landfills
Cheap to build and operate
compared to incineration,
high capacity, methane
captured from landfills can be
converted into renewable
energy, closed landfills can be
repurposed into parks, golf
courses, or recreational areas
Leachate can leak and
contaminate groundwater,
organic waste decomposes
w/o oxygen, producing
methane, require large
amounts of land, materials
can take decades or centuries
to decompose
Incinerators
Reduces volume of waste
needing landfill space,
produces electricity/steam for
local communities, ideal for
disposing of hazardous,
clinical, or toxic chemical
waste (destroys them,
releases pollution), not
weather dependent and less
odor than landfills
Releases harmful pollutants
(NOx and toxins) if not
properly filtered, expensive to
build and operate, leftover
ash is toxic and must go to
special landfills, need a
steady supply of waste which
can deter recycling efforts
Composting
Turns waste into valuable
fertilizer, reduces landfill
burden and methane
emissions, does not release
toxic fumes
Can only handle organic
materails, can attract rodents
and produce odors if
mismanaged, requires space
and consistent maintenance
(turning the compost)
The 6Rs
Reduces environmental
footprint by reducing need for
raw materials, saves energy
and natural resources, creates
more jobs than landfills or
incinerators
Requires changes in
consumer habits, some
materials are expensive and
technically difficult,
improperly separated
recycling can result in
materials still being sent to
landfills
8.4 Carrying Capacity & Ecological Footprints
❏​ Examples of ecological footprints in one named HIC and one named LIC
and reasoning for why they differ
HIC: United States
●​ High meat consumption, large dependence on fossil fuels for transport
and electricity, high consumer waste, and large energy intensive housing
●​ About 5 earths would be needed
LIC: Malawi
●​ Diet based largely on local unprocessed food, minimal transportation
ownership, low electricity consumption, and traditional low energy
housing.
●​ Ecological footprint is far within Earth’s sustainable biocapacity