Page | 1
Contents
Chapter 1- Introduction ...................................................................................... 6
1.1
Rationale, Background, and Significance of Study. .......................... 6
1.1.1
Kashmir Sultanate before Zain-ul-Abidin ..................................... 6
1.1.2
Political Condition of India (North) before Akbar ........................ 9
1.2
Review of Literature .......................................................................... 9
1.2.1
Persian Chronicles ......................................................................... 9
1.2.2
Colonial Historians ........................................................................ 9
1.2.3
Nationalist Historiography ............................................................. 9
1.2.4
Subaltern/Regional Historiography. .............................................. 9
1.3
Research Gap and Problem ................................................................ 9
1.3.1
Lack of structured comparative study ............................................ 9
1.3.2
Under-representation of Zain-ul-Abidin ........................................ 9
1.4
Hypothesis of Study ........................................................................... 9
1.5
Objective of Study ............................................................................. 9
1.6
Scope and Limitation ......................................................................... 9
1.7
Sources ............................................................................................... 9
1.7.1
Primary Sources ............................................................................. 9
1.7.2
Secondary Sources ......................................................................... 9
1.8
Research Methodology. ..................................................................... 9
1.8.1
Comparative Historical Method ..................................................... 9
1.8.2
Interdisciplinary ............................................................................. 9
1.8.3
Analytical & Interpretative Method ............................................... 9
1.9
Chapter Scheme ................................................................................. 9
1.9.1
Introduction .................................................................................... 9
1.9.2
Religious policies and the state. ..................................................... 9
1.9.3
Administrative Policies .................................................................. 9
1.9.4
Economic and welfare public policies ........................................... 9
1.9.5
Architecture, Art, and Culture Policies .......................................... 9
1.9.6
Conclusion and findings. ............................................................... 9
Chapter 2. Religious Policies and State ........................................................... 10
2.1
Zain ul Abdin's religious policies .................................................... 10
2.1.1
Promotion of religious and social harmony ................................. 10
2.1.2
Notable religious reforms and actions. (Protection of Pandits) ... 18
2.1.3
Abolition of Jizya......................................................................... 18
2.2
Akbar's religious policies. ................................................................ 18
Page | 2
2.2.1
Introduction to Din-1-Ilahi ........................................................... 18
2.2.2
Policies towards religious minorities ........................................... 18
2.2.3
Sulh I Kul ..................................................................................... 18
2.2.4
Abolition of jizya ......................................................................... 18
2.3
Comparative Paradigm..................................................................... 18
2.3.1
Personal Belief vs. State Policy ................................................... 18
2.3.2
Institutionalization of harmony .................................................... 18
2.3.3
Inclusiveness in Governance........................................................ 18
2.3.4
Long-term Social Impact ............................................................. 18
2.3.5
Critical Evaluation ....................................................................... 18
Chapter 3. Administrative policies .................................................................. 20
3.1
Policies under Zain ul Abdin ........................................................... 20
3.1.1
Civil Administration .................................................................... 20
3.1.2
Military Administration ............................................................... 24
3.1.3
Foreign Relations and Diplomacy. .............................................. 25
3.2
Administrative policies under Akbar ............................................... 25
3.2.1
Civil Administration .................................................................... 25
3.2.2
Mansabdari System ...................................................................... 25
3.2.3
Military Administration ............................................................... 25
3.2.4
Foreign Relations and Diplomacy. .............................................. 25
3.3
Comparative Analysis ........................................................................ 25
Chapter 4. Economic and public welfare policies ........................................... 26
4.1
Agrarian and Revenue Reforms under Zain Ul Abdin. ................... 26
4.1.1
Agriculture ................................................................................... 26
4.1.2
Revenue, trade, and commerce. ................................................... 29
4.1.3
Public Welfare Measures ............................................................. 34
4.2
Agrarian and Revenue Reforms under Akbar. ................................. 41
4.2.1
Agriculture ................................................................................... 41
4.2.2
Zabti System ................................................................................ 41
4.2.3
Dahsala System ............................................................................ 41
4.2.4
Public Welfare Measures ............................................................. 41
4.2.5
Revenue, Trade, and Commerce .................................................. 41
4.3
Comparative Administrative Efficiency .......................................... 41
4.3.1
Centralization ............................................................................... 41
4.3.2
Institutionalization ....................................................................... 41
4.3.3
Conclusion ................................................................................... 41
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Chapter 5. Architecture, Art, and Culture Policies .......................................... 42
5.1
Zain-ul-Abdin's architecture, art, and culture. ................................. 42
5.1.1
Art and Architecture (monuments and style) ............................... 42
5.1.2
Paintings)
Cultural Patronage (Literature, Translation Works, Scholars,
51
5.1.3
Expressive and Material Culture (Music, Food, Singing, Clothing,
51
Crafts) ....................................................................................................... 51
5.2
Akbar’s architecture, art, and culture. .............................................. 51
5.2.1
Art and Architecture (monuments and style) ............................... 51
5.2.2
Cultural Patronage (Literature, Translation Works, Scholars, ..... 51
(Paintings) ................................................................................................. 51
5.2.3
5.3
Expressive and Material Culture (Music, Food, Singing, Clothing)
51
Comparative Cultural Philosophy .................................................... 51
Chapter 6. Conclusion and Findings. ............................................................... 52
6.1
Major research findings ................................................................... 52
6.1.1
Historical Significance and Impact .............................................. 52
6.1.2
Zain Ul Abdin’s influence and impact on Kashmir ..................... 52
6.1.3
Akbar’s Influence and Impact on India. ...................................... 52
6.2
Comparative Analysis. ..................................................................... 52
6.3
Scope for Future Research ............................................................... 52
6.4
Final Thoughts. ................................................................................ 52
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Chapter 1- Introduction
1.1 Rationale, Background, and Significance of Study.
1.1.1
Kashmir Sultanate before Zain-ul-Abidin
Introduction
Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin being patron of intellectual and artistic pursuits his reign
fostered flourishing environment for Hindu Community (Kashmiri pandits), scholars,
artists and craftsman. however his death marked a discontinuation and leaving artisians
and intelligents in state of despair for their uncertain future. Shrivara, a contemporary
of Budshah records that with the demise of king manuscripts remain unopened, scholars
disappearing, translation works stopped and he further questions himself that how will
life continue after Budshahs demise. He captured this sentiment in verse: "Why did we
endure the disgrace of surviving the king’s passing? Now, we perish, consumed by
remorse."1
Mirza Haidar Dughlat, in Tarikh-i-Rashidi, emphasizes Budshah’s equitable
rule and his commitment to the welfare of all religious communities. His long reign of
fifty years established Kashmir as a centre of cultural and political prominence, the
legacy of which endured beyond his lifetime. Nizam-ud-Din Harvi, in Tabqat-i-Akbari,
notes that Budshah actively accompanied the company of intellectuals from diverse
backgrounds. His court remained a hub of wisdom, having scholars of both Hindu and
Muslim traditions. Harvi further highlights the Sultan’s contributions to music,
architecture, and agricultural development—areasnwhich mostly remained untouched
1
shah, G. h. (2016). A History of Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu
and Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.127)
Page | 6
(onlarge scale) by previous rulers. Muhammad Qasim Ferishta, in Tarikh-i-Firishta,
records the Sultan’s personal involvement in judicial affairs. His reputation for fairness
and rational judgment was reflected in his inclusive court and administrative reforms.
Among these was a directive holding local lords accountable for thefts within their
domains. His regulations, engraved on copper plates and displayed publicly, sought to
eradicating injustice through both moral deterrence and legal clarity. Narain Koul Aajiz,
in Tarikh-e-Kashmir, underscores Budshah’s efforts to revive and institutionalize arts
and crafts. He offered land grants in Pargana Phag to artisans brought from Central Asia
and commissioned translations of key texts, including the Mahabharata, into Persian.
His linguistic proficiency in Hindi, Tibetan, and Persian further facilitated crosscultural engagement.
Khwaja Muhammad Azam Dehlavi, in Tarikh-e-Azmi, writes and praises the
Sultan’s ethical governance and dedication to communal harmony. His legal and other
cultural decisions earned hima name Budshah—the Great King. Unlike his father he
did not support Islamic expansion, still his reign is
defined by an unwavering
commitment to scholarship, religious tolerance, and public welfare. He sought to
reverse the destruction and unethical rule by earlier invaders like Zulchu through
reforms and restoration. Dewan Kripa Ram, in Gulzar-e-Kashmir, credits Budshah with
introducing diverse horticultural practices, including the cultivation of grapes, apples,
and aquatic crops like sangada and lotus. He extended patronage across social and
religious groups, supporting Brahmin scholars to compile the Rajatarangini and
ensuring livelihoods through the promotion of art and industry.2 Pandit Hargopal Koul,
2
shah, G. h. (2016). A History of Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu
and Kashmir,India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.129/30)
Page | 7
author of Tarikh-e-Guldasta-i-Kashmir, highlights Budshahs efforts of eliminating
religious persecutions and helping to restore properties to rightful owners,state support
to scholars, establishing learning institutions, translating numerous texts from Sanskrit
to persian, support to exiled hindus, expansion of agriculture trade and urban
development with cannels. Lt. Colonel Sir Wellesley, in his History of India, observes
that while Budshah matched his father in scholarly patronage he over shadowed his
father in religious policies and developed pluralistic court culture. He was personally
interested into sprituality and arts and regularly engaged with musicians, dancers.3
The indigenous governing institutions were continued by even muslim rulers
but Sikandar after assending the throne attempted a violent manner but had a very few
impact.His son Zain-ul-Abdin a reformer did reconstruction to administration. He used
defence oriented measures and was remarkable for religious tolerance. Scarcely in the
annals of Islamic kingship would be any record comparable to Zain-ul-Abdin being so
good to his subjects; an exception can be made of main 4 Khalifas of Arab after the
Prophet Mohammad.4
3
shah, G. h. (2016). A History of Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.131)
4
shah, Ghulam hassan. 2016. A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar,
Jammu and Kashmir: GulshanBooks Kashmir.
Page | 8
1.1.2
Political Condition of India (North) before Akbar
1.2 Review of Literature
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
Persian Chronicles
Colonial Historians
Nationalist Historiography
Subaltern/Regional Historiography.
1.3 Research Gap and Problem
1.3.1
1.3.2
Lack of structured comparative study
Under-representation of Zain-ul-Abidin
1.4 Hypothesis of Study
1.5 Objective of Study
1.6 Scope and Limitation
1.7Sources
1.7.1
1.7.2
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
1.8 Research Methodology.
1.8.1
1.8.2
1.8.3
Comparative Historical Method
Interdisciplinary
Analytical & Interpretative Method
1.9 Chapter Scheme
1.9.1
1.9.2
1.9.3
1.9.4
1.9.5
1.9.6
Introduction
Religious policies and the state.
Administrative Policies
Economic and welfare public policies
Architecture, Art, and Culture Policies
Conclusion and findings.
Page | 9
Chapter 2. Religious Policies and State
2.1 Zain ul Abdin's religious policies
2.1.1
Promotion of religious and social harmony
It is relatively rare across history rulers capable of governing culturally and
religiously diverse societies with consistent impartiality. Zain-ul-Abdin emerges as a
significant example here. A conscious shift towards inclusive governance with marked
administrative balance and overall peace invites comparison with Akbar the Great. Like
Akbar, he fostered an atmosphere of relative harmony and coexistence, although he
faced criticism from orthodox groups; this represents change in governance and
transformation in moral and political orientation of state. Personally observant in the
Islamic faith as reflected in Rajatarangini, he did not translate personal devotion into
state practice. Engaged in Persian culture associated with Sufi traditions still never
privileged a single religious community and pursued policy grounded in administrative
fairness.1 Zain-ul-Abidin's tolerant perspective was the result of a deliberately shaped
intellectual and cultural milieu rather than an unintentional or singular characteristic.
Elements of this disposition as traced in his upbringing are his father, despite who later
shifts to orthodoxy, and the influence of his stepmother, Shobha Devi, who familiarizes
him with Hindu traditions. Maulana Kabir strengthened his intellectual orientation, and
1
N. K. Zutshi ‘Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin of Kashmir an Age of Enlightenment, ’Gulshan
Publication Srinagar
2012. Page No. 68-69.
Page | 10
Sufi philosophy helped him in shaping his worldview. For interreligious traditions,
Sheikh Nooruddin Rishi and Lalleshwari influenced his approach for broader cultural
synthesis.2
One of the incidents that gave Zain-ul-Abdin one of the court jewels and main
advisor is when Sultan was suffering from a boil on his forearm and was treated by
Shirya Bhatta and neglected the wealth offered by the sultan instead demanded the
safety of Hindu subjects in state. In later times, he assisted sultan to formulate the
tolerant policies for state Hindus.3 The socio-religious fabric of the Hindu community
was not good when Zainul Abidin ascended the throne. He allowed individuals to
worship as per their beliefs. Many Hindus from other areas (Kishtwar and Jammu)
returned to Kashmir after his invitation of resettlement in Kashmir. He introduced
rehabilitation schemes, residential accommodations, temple settlements, and livelihood
support through stipends and rent-free land for the needy, which promoted religious
coexistence. He demonstrated exceptional goodwill by permitting reconversion to
Hinduism for those who accepted Islam under duress to their original faith. However,
both Johanaraja and Shrivara, historical chroniclers, are silent about the reconversion
to Hinduism due to rigid system of ceremonial purity. This unprecedented measure by
a Muslim ruler went against the norms of time, highlighting Zain-ul-Abdin’s unique
approach to governance.4 To establish rule of law on equality and justice, he gained the
confidence of Muslims and promoted Hindu religion and culture, healing their wounds.
2
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zain-Ul-Abdin of Kashmir. An Age of Enlightement. Srinagar:
Gulshan Books.(p.69/70)
3
(Zutshi, 2012) Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zain-Ul-Abdin of Kashmir. An Age of Enlightement.
Srinagar:GulshanBooks.(p.70)
4
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zain-Ul-Abdin of Kashmir. An Age of Enlightement. Srinagar:
Gulshan Books.(p.71,72)
Page | 11
His merit-based recruitment allowed notable non-Muslim scholars to work in his court,
which included Johan Raja, Srivarsa, Pandit Notta Soma, Yodha Bhatta, Avatara
Bhatta, Shirya Bhatta (Superintendent of Court), Rupya Bhatta (Court Astrologer and
Architect), Malik Daulat Chand and Malik Autar Chand (military commanders), and
Tilakacharaya. Sultan, being a learned man and valuing education, granted tax-free land
and villages to learned Brahmins. He paid special attention to Sureshvari Ksetra, a great
religious site of Kashmiri Hindus surpassing even Varanasi, this fame attracted
Ramananda, a notable Vaishnava teacher and Bhakti movement reformer, to meet the
sultan.5 He participated in Hindu rituals and festivals with enthusiasm during
Nagayatra, the Grana Chakra festival (where he fed devotees on the 5th day), Vyath
Truvah (lamp festival in September/October), Chaitra (spring) festival, and regular
visits to shrines of Sharda Peeth and Amarnath. He constructed a canal for the
pilgrimages in Amarnath and, especially in the year 1463 AD, visited the pilgrimages
of Vijayesvara and Naubandhana Hill with Simha Bhatta and Srivara. He adopted an
ascetic look and distanced himself from hunting and refrained from eating meat during
Ramazan. By understanding and following Hindu customs, he always desired to bridge
the gap between communities. Whereas Ashoka and Akbar formed new religions, or as
Ashoka converted to Buddhism, Sultan Zain-ul-Abdin adhered to principles of Islam
personally and adopted an ascetic look to promote harmony among communities.6 He
earned the deep gratitude of Hindu community, and Hindus revered and considered him
(Zutshi, 2012)Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zain-Ul-Abdin of Kashmir. An Age of
Enlightement.Srinagar:
Gulshan Books.(p.77)
5
6
(Zutshi, 2012)Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zain-Ul-Abdin of Kashmir. An Age of Enlightement.
Srinagar: Gulshan Books.(p81-83)
Page | 12
as incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Possibly his teachings influenced Akbar, who later
translated Kashmir’s history into Persian, but Zain-ul-Abdin’s tolerance and
enlightened views surpass Akbar’s teachings7. By public notice, he invited and
promised justice to migrated Hindus to other regions by providing them their properties
and lands after verification, which led to nearly all the Hindus settled in the rest of the
parts to return to valley. Those who were unable to verify were gifted the land for
rebuilding homes. 8In the later part of Kashmir’s history when under Afghan rule under
the reign of Jabar Khan and Azim Khan, oppression of Kashmiri Pandits paved path as
Maharaja Ranjit Singh was invited to invade Kashmir (ending Muslim rule in Kashmir
1819). This indicates that if there had been Hindu rulers across other regions, especially
Delhi during the execution done by Sikandar, they must have invaded Kashmir, but by
reviving this, Zain-ul-Abdin set an example of compassion taught by Islam. He reduced
tax burden from 8 tolas to 1 masha, allowing many pandits settled in other places,
especially Jagannath and Kurukshetra, to return.9
He reconstructed the Shankaracharya temple (originally Azushti Shore Temple)
built by Raja Sandeeman in 480 Bikrami. Temple was also reconstructed by King Raja
Gopadat and Lalitaditya, but durability and strength were given by Badshah established
Patshalas to freely acquire lost knowledge of Hinduism after returning to Kashmir by
allowing endowments for Patshalas and temples with salaried teachers. He translated
7
(Zutshi, 2012)Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zain-Ul-Abdin of Kashmir. An Age of Enlightement.
Srinagar: Gulshan Books.(p86)
8
(shah, 2016) shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar,
Jammu and Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(p.234/235)
9
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir(P.239 and 241)
Page | 13
shastras into Persian and Persian works into Sanskrit for mutual understanding among
different religions. As Persian was the court language, he provided free education to
pandits along with the Jogi Langer program to learn and acquire government positions,
which in turn produced many pandits being notables’ Persian scholars. Those pandits
working in government were called “Karkuns” (workers who later held positions up to
Afghan rule where most of the lawlessness was followed). Nandram Tiku, a respected
Kashmiri Pandit Karkun, rose to power in Kabul. His prominence was such that the
phrase "sika zad dar Kablistan Nandram" (meaning coins were minted in Kabul in
Nandram's name) remains well-known and cited, and religious activities engagers
(Bach Bhat). Budshah’s rule and policies produced remarkable scholars: Pandit Shive
Bhat, royal physician; Pandit Johana Raja, historian; Yudh Bhat translator, Sada Shive
Bayu, astrologer; Gopal Koul, Madu Koul, Ganesh Koul, Soom Pandit courtier poet
and translators; Tilak Charya, Buddhist courtier; Rupa Bhat, astrologer and
mathematician; Shree Bhat, court physician, Shree Bhat, minister of justice. He ordered
a ban on cow slaughtering and partially allowed sati (means favoring Hindu rituals and
customs), abolished tax on deceased Hindus, allowing death rituals as per Hinduism
(earlier were taxed by Sikandar).10
Kalhana’s Rajatarangini and Nilmatha Purana do not specifically mention the
Amarnath yatra, while it gained popularity during Dogra rule, whereas Jonaraja’s
Rajatarangini mentions Budshah was the first Muslim king to visit the shrine (but court
records lack mention). Special mention is given to his visit to Hindu holy shrine of
10
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir,India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.243/246)
Page | 14
Sharda Teerath near the Kishan Ganga River in Muzaffarabad by Johanaraja. He
allowed Hindus to enter mosques by performing ablution, but earlier under Sikander
and Ali Shah it was prohibited. One story narrated why he liked and favored Hindus
most is that he was saved by two Hindu royal physicians (Shive Bhat and Bodi Bhat,
who sought help of an Asiatic skilled in esoteric arts) during severe illness that defied
all medical remedies. Asiatic proposed solution of soul transference; upon Budshah’s
death, Asiatic will transfer his soul into king’s body, ensuring his survival, which
helped in kings’ recovery. After this, Asciatics’ body was purportedly cremated
according to Hindu rites, and Budshah ruled justly for 32 more years hereafter by deep
devotion and assistance of Hindu physicians (this narrative echoes historical episode
recorded in Babur Nama involving Humayun and Babar, where sacrificial devotion
played a role in healing of Humayun and Babur died).11 Shrivara mentions the religious
gatherings under royal patronage of Budshah that gathered in Inderkot, but sound of
conch shells echoed as far as Manasbal. State-arranged food and flowers were given by
Budshah during the Nagyatra and Ghan Chakar festivals. Mera (spiritual community
head) was honored with robes and ceremonial gifts reflecting the king's public
endorsement. Barakheshtar, Vijaya Kheshtar, and Ashanak were places were Budshah
build charity houses for all. Budshah also Pargana Kral (in Zainpore) were Brahmins
were granted tax-free lands. Budshah consciously incorporated Hindu ritual practices
into the ceremonial life of his court, reinforcing broader culture of inclusivity. An
example is annual observance of Vitasta festival (held on 13th day of each lunar month.)
Budshah specially travelled from Inderkot to Srinagar to witness celebrations of sacred
11
shah, G. h. (2016). A History of Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu
and Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.250-253)
Page | 15
river. Shrivara describes the rows of lamps along the river and a shared festive space
within hindus and muslims. Emperor Jahangir, in his memoir, records it as "Vita
Truvah," highlighting its continuation.12
Budshah maintained cooperative and peaceful relations with neighboring and
subordinate rulers; he defended kashmirs sovereignty whenever required, though he
was not expansionist by intent. He often reinstated defeated rulers under vassal terms(
He repeatedly pardoned Raja of Udbandpore), with other examples being Bhuta
community and Kalut region. In the Ladakh conquest, Budshah prevented desecration
of idol of Golden Buddha during conquest demonstrating respect. In 1463 AD during
his birthday celebration at Zaina Tilak he invited subordinate rulers and formally
installed Jai Sema ( Jai Singh) as Raja of Rajori by performing Tilak ceremony himself,
strengthening diplomatic. ties.13
12
shah, G. h. (2016). A History of Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu
and Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.254/7)
13
shah, G. h. (2016). A History of Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu
and Kashmir,India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.257)
Page | 16
Page | 17
2.1.2
2.1.3
Notable religious reforms and actions. (Protection of Pandits)
Abolition of Jizya
2.2 Akbar's religious policies.
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
Introduction to Din-1-Ilahi
Policies towards religious minorities
Sulh I Kul
Abolition of jizya
2.3 Comparative Paradigm
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
Personal Belief vs. State Policy
Institutionalization of harmony
Inclusiveness in Governance
Long-term Social Impact
Critical Evaluation
Page | 18
Page | 19
Chapter 3. Administrative policies
3.1 Policies under Zain ul Abdin
3.1.1
Civil Administration
Budshah like other kings of subcontinent did not personally manage all state
affairs but relied on a council of ministers( in Sanskrit Amatya Parishad or Mantri
sabha). It served as advisory body to Budshah assisting in executive,legislative and
judicial functions.they provided recommendations to sultan and final decision was of
sultan. some effective and influential ministers include Shirya Bhatta, Tilakacharay,
and Darya khan.1 Historian Khwaja Azam (in Waqiya-te-Kashmir) has done justice by
writing and praising the judicial system of Zain-ul-Abdin in golden words where he
narrates that he appointed Hindu judges for Hindus and Qazis for Muslims, hence
deciding cases as per creed, which automatically eliminates injustices.2
Department and Officials
Prime Minister
Earlier known as Mukhyomantri or suvadhikara (under earlier dynasties of
Kashmir), came to be known as Wazir with the advent of Muslim rulers and
governance. Overseeing judicial investigations and military duties was his primary
1
Zutshi, N.K. 2012. Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir. 2nd . srinagar: gulshan Books.
—. 2012. Sultan Zain-Ul-Abdin of Kashmir. An Age of Enlightement. Srinagar: Gulshan Books.
2
shah, G. h. (2016). A History of Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu
and Kashmir,India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.251)
Page | 20
duty. During the reign of Zain-ul-Abidin's position rotated among royal family
members.
Ecclesiastical Department
The Shaikh-ul-Islam (title), established by Sultan Sikandar, headed the
ecclesiastical department. The office was occupied by Maulana Kabir under Budshah
and was responsible for enforcing Shariat law and advising sultan on legal and religious
matters. Shaikh-ul-Islam also managed important religious endowments.
Minister for Justice
The Dharmadhikara, an office which was created in the 8th century for judicial
administration, was re-assumed by the Qazi and Shaikh-ul-Islam during Sultan
Sikandar’s rule. Under Zain-ul-Abidin, Shirya Bhatta held this role, overseeing judicial
functions and advising on social reforms.
Mahattama
The revenue related tasks were managed by Mahattama or Grhakrtyadhikarin.
Under Zain-ul-Abidin, Tilakacharya, a prominent Buddhist minister, occupied this
office.
Mir Bakhshi
Being the head of military department mir Bakshi managed salaries, records and
recruitment in army.
Treasurer
Royal treasury was controlled by Ganjavara or Kosesa. Hasan, the Treasurer
under Zain-ul-Abidin, played a crucial role in securing support for Haji Khan’s
succession.
Page | 21
Accountant General
The accountant general, or Gananaswami, managed financial records. Under
Zain-ul-Abidin, this role was filled by Simha, who was as influential as other highranking officials.
Superintendent of Buildings
Ruyya Bhandapati, a skilled architect, was responsible for constructing new
towns and look over the buildings. he also used to oversee old buildings restoration.
Intelligence Department
Although not much in use provided comprehensive intelligence on internal and
external threats to Budshah, and he occasionally conducted inspections to stay
informed.
Translation Bureau
One of the best department was translation of Sanskrit texts into Persian and
vice versa. Sanskrit works were also translated into Kashmiri.
Court of Registration
To
prevent
fraud,
Budshah
established
a
Court
of
Registration
(Dharmadhikarana) for authenticating land transactions and recording every transaction
and keeping it in archives.
Record Office
Page | 22
Official records were maintained on bhurja leaves at Suyyapura(sopore) . This
office, dedicated to Kramarajya, was destroyed in a fire. A similar office likely existed
in Srinagar for Madavarajya records.
Margesa
It was placed at critical mountain passes and was responsible for defence and
local administration with given role of military and administrative duties.
City-Prefect
To look after the management of city Nagaradhikrta was appointed to manage
urban administration, law enforcement, and infrastructure. Notable officials recorded is
Kanch Damara who managed police and magistrate functions of the city.
Provincial and Local Administration
Under the reign of Budshah, Kashmir was divided into four provinces, each
having distinct administrative structures:
1. Madavarajya: Centered at Srinagar and directly controlled by the Sultan.
2. Kramarajya: Governed from Suyyapura (Sopore), with administrative oversight by
Adam Khan.
3. Bahyadesavanih: The outer provinces, including Rajouri and Punch, were managed
by Haji Khan and Hasan Khan.
4. Nowshahra: A frontier province governed by military commanders like Millan
Sayyid Nasir. Administrative units, or Visayas (Parganas), were subdivided into
Page | 23
villages, with local administration ensuring community responsibility for law
enforcement.3
3.1.2
Military Administration
The restructuring of the army was driven primarily to safeguard Kashmir's
sovereignty and territorial cohesion, as Budshah did not exhibit overt imperial
ambitions. His military system was a hybrid, integrating centralized state forces with
feudal levies, forming a composite defense system. This mainly included royal and
provincial armies, fortified outposts, and auxiliary troops supplied by feudatories
during wartime.
Central Forces
Budshah maintained standing army funded by state deployed in capital and
provincial centers. Predominantly recruitment drew from Rajput, Khasa, Thakur,
Sayyid, Raina, and Magre lineages. The Chaks (later Dynasty which ruled Kashmir)
formally integral to army were marginalized. Officers were compensated through land
grants (jagirs), which could be expanded as rewards for exceptional service to state.
Budshah permitted hereditary succession in senior military ranks but only to competent
sons, valuing merit above lineage. (Firuz Tughluq of Delhi had fully hereditary
recruitment in army). Malik Autar chand was a notable example who inherited position
from his father but showed excellent skills while fighting Kashgar in Ladakh. Cavalry
was maintained and budshah had atleast 20,000 horsemen as native breeds were
considered inferior; superior horses were imported from regions such as Iraq, Central
3
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan
Books.(P.103/9)
Page | 24
Asia, and Arabia. Chronicles report about Infantry that up to 100,000 foot soldiers took
part in major engagements, notably the battle of Sheh. Elephants and camels although
not native to Kashmir were imported from eastern india. these animals server mainly in
transport supplies but were also used in combat and logistical roles. the role of chariotry
is mentioned while supressing haji khans revolt at Mallasila. Budshah is credited of
introducing artillery in Kashmir. Shrivara records primitive cannons were deployed
first time during mallasila campaign. Budshah supported advancements in firearms,
encouraging artisians to produce metal artillery. Those days Habib was a well known
name pioneering gunsmith and instrumental in muskets and cannory development.
Budshah along with him co-authored a now-lost manual on gunpowder and firearms
manufacturing. Shrivaras accounts mention verse inscribed on cannon crafted in 1465
AD, describing the capability of cannons destruction. 4( The description correlates with
the cannons, which were introduced in India by Babur first in battle of Panipat in 1526
AD.)
3.1.3
Foreign Relations and Diplomacy.
3.2 Administrative policies under Akbar
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
Civil Administration
Mansabdari System
Military Administration
Foreign Relations and Diplomacy.
3.3 Comparative Analysis
4
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan
Books.(P.117/118)
Page | 25
Chapter 4. Economic and public welfare policies
4.1Agrarian and Revenue Reforms under Zain Ul Abdin.
4.1.1
Agriculture
Historical records in pre-Islamic Kashmir through little light on revenue
assessment which could be due to limited use of coinage and land revenue was collected
in kind often through barter. Muslim rule brought significant changes, Firishta records,
Sultan Shams-ud-din( 1339-1342) kept land revenue at 1/6th of agriculture produce.
Abul Fazl describes similar duty on imported goods. Under Sultan Sikandar and his
minister Seh Bhat taxation burden was increased on agrarian and commercial sectors,
while later Budshah reversed these practices, reinstating it to 1/6th of produce, and he
specially made it 1/7th in the region Zainageer. He introduced standazided measures
and weights and strictally prohibited bribary by revenue officials. Peace and extensive
irrigation infrastructure fostered agricultural growth in his reign.Tarikh-e-Hassan
reports an annual revenue of 1.7 crore. This scale of surplus indicates to state reforms
under Budshah.1 Mirza Haidar Dughlat who later records land as classified into
irrigated, naturally watered,gardens and marshy plains originated during Budshahs
Period. It also remained central pillar of state financing during Budshahs Period.
Ownership of land was with cultivators although jagir system existed.2
1
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.212)
2
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan Books.(P.127)
Page | 26
Agricultural Reforms
Newly reclaimed or conquered territories remained under direct royal
ownership for supply to sultans household. For revenue assessment land measurement
was done and payments were made in kind mainly rice. Land sales were recorded on
Bhurja leaves and preserved in official registries for crubbing fraud. War booty, mining
operations, and royal estates, minerial resources, 1/6th share on gold collected through
private gold washing along riverbanks were additional income a part from agrarian
taxes and these arrangements were formalized through copper-plate inscriptions. These
were the payment practices and supplement revenue sources during Budshah.3
To ensure self-efficiency, Budshah undertook comprehensive agricultural
reforms. Rice being staple food he expanded the irrigation infrastructure, being
necessity for production. He built a systematic cannel system specially for previously
un irrigated and uncultivated areas (Example rice fields in Pargana of Zainagiri). One
of the notable and rarest examples is Budshah, introduced floating agricultural plots—
constructed by layering earth over rafts of grass—used primarily for growing
cucumbers and melons on lakes such as Dal and Nagin in Srinagar. origins of these
islands is unclear but Abul Fazl reports their continuation. Lowering the cereal prices
and eluminating food scarcity were the outcomes of Badshah's effective reforms.He
attempted sugarcane cultivation in the Martanda region, but there is no further record
of its continuation cultivation. Upgradation or new construction of Irrigation projects
is of the main reforms done by Budshah to increase agriculture production. Notable
among all are the following:
3
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan Books.(P.128)
Page | 27
1. Utpalapura Canal: An extension of an existing canal, serving agricultural lands
near and around Utpalapura.
2. Nandashaila Canal: Newly excavated for and to irrigate the arid region of
Nandashaila.
3. Karala Canal (Suvarnamani): Originally built by King Suvarna, restored by
Budshah to support cultivation in the Karala (Ardhavana) region.
4. Avantipura Canal: Extended irrigation to the Avantipura area, enhancing local
rice yields. Remnants near Midpur and Rajpur remain.
5. Lalkul or Pohur Canal: Constructed in 1459, it diverted water from the Pohur
River (a tributary of the Jhelum) to Zainagiri, irrigating fertile tracts between the
Pohur and Wular Lake.
6. Martanda Canal: Established by Lalitaditya, rehabilitated under the supervision
of Minister Shirya Bhatta. It sourced water from the Lidar River for the Martanda
plateau.
7. Zainaganga (Lachan Kul): Drew water from the Sind River to the new capital,
Zainanagari, and further supplied the Jamia Masjid and Ranaswami temple,
eventually merging with the Mar Canal.
8. Manas Canal: Channelled Sind River water through Lar (region in Ganderbal dist)
to irrigate the Manasbal Lake region, later supported a new city founded on the
lake's bank in 1462.
9. Mar Canal (Nala Mar): Redirected surplus water from Dal Lake to the Jhelum via
Shadipur through a newly constructed link. This canal, still functional in parts.
Approximately 75% of arable land by the end of his reign was dedicated to rice
cultivation. Irrigation infrastructure was the key reform which proved to be turning
Page | 28
point for such productive output.4 He attempted growing sugarcane in Zaina-geer
too a unsuited crop to Kashmir, the experiment was short lived like in south
Kashmir reflects his inclination towards innovation. Revenue reforms, trade, and
commerce. 5
Revenue
An important innovation of Budshah is recording and public dissemination of
commodity prices on copper plates distributed to various parganas. He recorded a
message for upcoming rulers as he quotes on edicts with stern causion “Whoever
succeeds me and fails to uphold this order—his fate rests with God.” Despite this no
ruler after him followed his regulations, leading to market fluctuations and inflation.
Earliest paddy recorded prices are from Raja Avantivarmans’ reign (1 khirwar of
paddy= 200 dinars, during famines upto 1,050 dinars or 4 annas per khirwar).
Soya(founder of sopore town) furthere reduced it to 164 dinars per khirwar. Shrivara
records that during Budshahs reign average cost of paddy was 300 dinars(approx. 4.5
paisa). Other commodities, like grapes (approx.. 1.5 paisa (5 kg), Salt which was
imported from Punjab and Ladakh remained expansive.6
Unlike his predecessors, who often repurposed temple metals to mint debased
coinage—even under Sikandar and Ali Shah Budshah was the first king in
Kashmir(among Hindus and Muslim Kings) to formally regulate weight standards of
4
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan
Books.(P.130/31)
5
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.162 to 170)
6
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.213)
Page | 29
coinage. He fixed it as Gold 91 grains silver 96 grains and brass coin as 83 grains. This
marked institutionalization of numismatic precision in region.
Recognizing the
substandard nature of recycled temple gold, often referred to as Korisoun (a dowrygrade alloy), he abandoned this practice and instead explored and utilized a native
copper mine leading to introduction of high-purity coinage. During Akbars rule
regional characteristics were maintained in Kashmir but within Mughal monetary
framework. Coins struck in Srinagar had characteristic's: inscripted in Arabic or
persian, religious imaginary omitted, mentioned minting year and Zarb-e-Kashmir
(Minted in Kashmir). Budshah formalized the minting process in Kashmir where as
Akbars coins gold and silver were praised for finess a tradition further elevated under
jhangir. Abul Fazl records that Akbar recognized earlier Kashmiri denominations but
re elevated values as per terms of Mughal currency. Coins like Dawa Dosh, Pontshu,
Hath, and Sas were recalibrated as follows:
Coin Name
Dinars
Equivalent (Akbar's Era)
Dawa Dosh
12
Nominal Value
Pontshu
25
Rs.
Hath
100
Rs.
Sahsar (Sas)
1,000
Rs.
Lakash (Lakh)
100,000
Rs. 25
Koti (Crore)
10,000,000
Rs. 2500
Page | 30
Smaller denominations, such as cowrie shells, were also used in transactional
exchange. 8 cowries equaled one Dawa Dosh, and 16 cowries equaled one Pontshu (25
dinars). Abul Fazl further records conversions between dinars and Mughal dams,
reflecting integration between regional and imperial fiscal systems:7
500 Dinars = 5 Dams (~1/8 Rupee)
2,000 Dinars = 20 Dams (~½ Rupee)
2,500 Dinars = 25 Dams (~5/8 Rupee)
12,500 Dinars = 125 Dams (~Rupees 3.13)
Historical record of Johanaraja Confirms the of copper and iron from Kamraz
Hills, stretching from the shrine of Babshakoor-ud-din to Lolab via Nala Pohroo.
Badshah's region marked Exploration and utilization of Kashmir's mineral resources.
When gold began to appear in rivers mainly in Ladakh region and gold panning as
occupation Budshah made It was made mandatory to reverse gold back to the State
Treasury Newly accessed minds were either placed under royal control, or integrated
into the public revenue system as recorded by Tabqak-i-Akbari. Iron being the primary
extract and gold too was traced in Zainageer particularly in villages of Tujar and
hardoshera for which Remnants of historical mining activity are still observable in these
regions. Zain-ul-Abidin established a royal mint in the locality at Tanki Sarai near Saraf
7
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.226)
Page | 31
Kadal, Srinagar. The name of the area, derived from the coin-minting activity (tankasarai), reflects the economic centrality of the mint. The nearby bridge, Saraf Kadal,
similarly derives its name from the cluster of goldsmiths and bullion traders operating
in area. His coins were noted on basis of both purity and design where silver coins were
square shaped with inscribed on one side with “Al-Sultan bin Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin,”
and on the reverse with “Zarb-e-Khita-e-Kashmir.” copper coins bore similar
inscriptions, including the phrase “Amir-ul-Mu’minin”. Gold and silver coins display
similarity with “Al-Sultan al-Azam Zain-ul-Abidin” and “Zarb-e-Kashmir fi Shahoor
Sana Ahad,” while calander era remains uncertain. Concerned with irregularities in
existing units of measurement, particularly the jareeb (used in land measurement), Zainul-Abidin implemented a comprehensive standardization of weights and measures to
protect agrarian interests. Recognizing peasants as the foundation of the economy, he
extended the jareeb and mandated precision in all measurement tools. These
standardized units, later documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, include:
1 tola = 16 mashas; 1 masha = 6 ratis
1 seer = 7.5 pal; 1 man = 40 seers
1 trakh = 4 seers; 1 khirwar = 16 trakh (approximately the burden a donkey could carry);
a horse could carry up to 22 trakh. These units persisted into Akbar’s reign, reflecting
a continuity of regional metrology.8
8
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.228)
Page | 32
Monetary system and coinage
Dinar which demonstrated high value transactions was not a coin but standard of
account widely accepted in Kashmir and through copper coins and not gold coins.
Cowreies were in circulation for small transaction(8 cowreies = 1 bahagani).Along with
it payments in kind(Rice measured in Kharwars), silver bullion were also part of
economic exchange system. coins issued during Budshahs rule include copper, brass,
silver, and rare gold coins. Copper in abundant,brass limited specimens, silver rare and
gold exceedingly scarce. Most copper and brass coins feature characteristics a central
bar and knot, inscribed with the title Al-Sultan-ul-Azam and the Sultan’s name omitting
the term "Shalhi" used by his predecessors.A significant departure from earlier designs
is observed in a subset of his coins, where the Persian word Zarb intersects with
Kashmir, enclosed in a stylized lozenge. These coins range in diameter from 1.2 to 2.3
cm. His silver coins are square-shaped dated 1439 AD(sultan sikandars coins bear same
date suggesting confusion or symbolic use). The of silver coins was between 91 to 96
grams. Badshah's gold coins are rare and marked by uniformity each weighting 175
grams, with Kalima on one side and sultans title on other. Artistic quality of his coins
is considered sub-standard although he achieved much in cultural achievements.9
9
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan Books.(P.136)
Page | 33
4.1.2
Public Welfare Measures and Reforms.
In the governance of Budshah public infrastructure and welfare occupied central
place. His patronage extended to all major faiths.he commissioned the restoration and
construction of mathas, viharas, temples, and mosques which indicates not only hindu
community but he extended patronage to all major faiths. A per Ministers advice(Shirya
Bhatta) each pargana had large Matha established and significant viharas along Jhelum
river. Temples dedicated to Shiva and sun at siddhapuri, mosque at Madin Sahib(1444
AD), Mosque at Zaina Lanka Zainalank (1443–44 CE), were completed during
Budshahs reign. He and his queen often distributed at chairatable infrastructure(langar
khanas) at Baramulla, Vijayesvani, and Shurpura themselves. He established villages
near wullar lake to rehabilitate displaced populations,planted trees in urban and
piligramage areas, water reservoirs with acqatic plants and animals with prohibiting
their killing. He also build victory towers commerating military success(not as
expansionst but while defending his kingdom), promoted medical advancements by
founding hospitals with free care,food and medicines. He build multiple roads
connecting major settlements,though some were damaged during 1462 AD floods.
River crossings in srinagar, boat bridges notably at Zaina kadal(permanent stone-andwood bridge with four towers).10
Cannel and Irrigation Infrastructure.
10
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan Books.(P.138)
Page | 34
Tabqat-i-Akbari affirms that no predecessor matched Budshshs efforts in canal
construction and land improvement as he also safeguarded the intrests of villagers. He
issued a Royal edict prohibiting revenue officials to personally get engaged with
zamindars showing bureaucratic significance and ensured justice to villagers.His
contribution to agricultural development was unparalleled in history of Kashmir.
Engineer Soya laid early foundations in irrigation but Budshahs reign was more
advanced and benefited more people from Kingdoms aurhority and sources. Historian
Aurel Stein while refering works of Johanaraja and Shrivara give credit to the Budshsh
for canals attributed to his reign.11
The Lal Kohal Canal
Referred to as Budshah Kohal or Nahr-e-Zind, the origins of this canal were
from stream Nala Pohru and Lolab Valley making it one of the significant Project. The
order for the construction of stone bund near Bunagam Pohru was given by Budshah to
divert water to Zainageer(a region he personally settled and cultivated). Major branches
of canal irrigated villages at mountain base like Zolrah, Harwan, Nowpora, Tujar, and
others, while smaller offshoots reached areas like Doru and Darpora, forming an
intricate irrigation network. The canal was completed in (1454–55 CE) and court poets
celebrated the project and wrote in the honour of this project as:
Choon shud taameer aan joiye ghrami, Khirad tarikh guft: “Joiye Khurram”
("When the noble canal was built, wisdom declared its date: ‘Canal of Joy’")
11
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.198)
Page | 35
Remnants of its structure—bunds, brickwork, and lime—are visible in villages such as
Tujar, Zainpora, Bumy, and Sopore.12
Shah Kohal: Martand Plateau
King Lalitaditya (r. 715–752 AD) was the first who made Martand Plateau cultivable
as it was arid and unproductive. He constructed a canal from Ganesh Pora 16 miles
from Martand)diverting water from Lidder river. Historians Kalhana, Praja Bhat, and
Shuk mentioned that cannel helped to grow extensive grape cultivation however
successors did not maintain the cannel leading to its decline. Centuries later Budshah
revived agriculture in region. He reconstructured cannel transforming barren lands into
fertile again. many labourers were not paid (forced labour) where as some were paid as
2 to 4 paisa per day. one notable incident is that during forced labour a servant of Baba
Zain-ud-Din(disciple of Sheikh Noor-ud-Din) was forced to work which let to his
interference haulting the flow of water from Liddar river stopping the work, leading to
drought-like situation until Budshah was informed of Unjustice and he sought the
forgiveness and prohibited forced labour work during cannel construction.Upon the
saint's appeasement, the river resumed its flow. Shrivara records the superior quality
and abundance of fruits grown in region specially grapes.13
Nala Mar: Urban Hydraulics Cannel
Historically it is named as Mahasarvir and Mari Sangham by ancient Hindu
sources, the brook joins the Jhelum opposite Sheer Ghati. Sheikh Abdul Wahab Noori,
12
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir,India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.199/200)
13
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.199/200)
Page | 36
records that Budshah revived it to irrigate Pargana Achan and provide water for
Idgah(Srinagar). The Nala Mar was also engineered for navigation, becoming vital for
intra-city transport and facilitating the distribution of Dal Lake produce across Srinagar.
Nala Mar also has religious significance as the water from it was used for Aali Masjid
at Idgah(build bu Budshahs brother Ali shah) and banks of Nala mar became resting
place of mystics like Syed Mohammad Baihaqi and Mir Syed Habib Sar Khwabi
making it as symbol of cultural and religious significance.14
Famine Relief Measures
It was in the year 1460 AD (marked by untimely snowfall devastating the
ripening rice crop triggering famine with acute food shortage and distress) and 1462
AD (excessive rainfall causing floods destroying infrastructure and grains) that two
natural disasters impacted the agricultural output leading to inflation making rice
unaccessible to common people. Merchants worsened crisis by demanding exorbitant
sums. Budshah intervenes in these crises and opens state grain reserves for public which
helped in two ways: market stabilization and food scarcety. He examined the prefamine prices and made the public by displaying fixed commodity rates proved
effective. For easing rural hardship, he reduced land revenue to 1/4th in rural effected
areas and 1/7th in severely affected areas. He also cleared debts accured by poor during
famine. Badshah's measures reflect rare model of interventionist and compassionate
leadership unlike contemporary regions like Punjab, where famine led to slavery and
cannibalism.15
14
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir,India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.206/7)
15
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan Books.(P.133)
Page | 37
A khirwar of paddy, once sold for 5 paisa, became unavailable even at 1,500
dinars.Budshah ordered extraction of edible oil from deodar trees if not available. Relief
kitchens operated for months, and prices were regulated to prevent further inflation.
Shrivara further records collapse of various crafts and learning institutions. Tarikh-eFirishta records that consumption of leaves by people, raw vegetables and unripe fruits
became common by desperate populace during 1460 AD. Barely 2 years later(1462
AD) Kashmir was struck by major floods due to rising water level in rivers Vitasta,
Lidder, Sindhu, and Vishow—causing extensive damage in Srinagar. Maraz(south
Kashmir) and Kamraz (North Kashmir) both areas were affected, Budshah after
personal survey by boat launched large scale relief operations. To safeguard from future
floods he founded city of Zaina Tilak (near Inderkot). At one occasson Abul fazl reports
he distriputed 10 Crore dinars in a single day(a sum equivalent to 25,000 rupees as per
Abul Fazl). During this year prices of paddy were capped at 6 annas per khirwar which
demonstrates success of Budshahs price control policies during emergency.16
Zain Ganga canal
Kral plateau despite having rivers remained barren until budshah build a Zaina
Ganga cannel. Jonaraja and Kashminder confirm that the town and canal were named
after the Budshah. This cannel converted major arid lands into fertile estates.17
Land Registration reforms
16
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.215/19)
17
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.208)
Page | 38
"Budshah institutionalized formal land registration due to arising disputes in
sales,mortgages and inheritance arrangements being informal. He established official
record offices were deeds were verified and archived. This addressed major rural
conflict by introducing legal accountability and transpancy" states the Johanaraja and
notes its role in crubing property related litigation.This was a remarkable reform as it
highlighted the major issue of land transfer and gave a legal system to crub the issue.18
Zain-ul-Abidin’s Bridges Infrastructure Reforms
Before construction of bridges, ferries and boats served as the primary mode for
river crossing in early history of Kashmir. Kalhana and shrivara mention about the
floating structures for crossing rivers and were dismantled during enemy threats. King
Parorsen II build a prominent boat bridge named as Bharat sathu which historians
suggest near current Maisuma(not exact) but bridge was parished in great fire in 1123
AD. permanent bridge construction began during Sikandar's rule, one of many at Dal
lake and one being over Nala-i-Mar. Budshah being a reformer constructed wooden
bridge at maharaj Ganj named Zaina Kadal, considered one of the finest architectural
achievements of his reign. Shrivara mentions that shift from stone to wooden bridges
was due to material availibity and structural demands. Nala-e-Mar, including Naid
Kadal, Bori Kadal, Saraf Kadal, Kavery Kadal, Rajver Kadal, and Kavdara Kadal were
other permnant bridges build by Budshah. locations including Shadipora, Sopore, Naid
Khai, Umarhar, and Jogi Lanker were regions where bridges were constructed, but none
of them survive.19
18
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.221)
19
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.171 to 174)
Page | 39
Social Reforms.
To restore hindu customs previously banned were reversed by Budshah
although he intervened very less in practice of Sati despite possessing authority and
popularity, but he did intervene and was noteworthy and is popular for it to go against
caste discrimination where he faced opposition from upper-caste hindus. He protected
sudras from social persecution,addressed exploitation of orphaned girls having male
guardians by banning the practice of sexual exploitation. However his reforms
remained confined to Kashmir valley as Emperor Jhangir records that practice of
infanticide and sati continued in areas like Rajapuri.20
Judicial Reorganization and Reforms
Under Sultan Ali shah lawlessness prevailed with rampant corruption and
unchecked criminality, especially among non-Muslims. Even judges were involved in
bribery. Budshah undertook far reaching overhaul legal system to make reforms in
judicial system. He started proceedings with equity regardless of rank and religion and
codified and publicly displayed proceedings. Corrupt officials( like Maulana Ishaq and
Mir Thakur) were investigated and panalyzed to ensure accountability. To reflect
Budshahs inclusive governance his court had multi-religious jurists, including Shirya
Bhatta, Tilakacharya, and Darya Khan. The Qazi and Pradvivak held significant
authority in provincial courts, while village justice was administered through collective
responsibility. Both oral and documentary evidence were accepted, with no distinction
made on the basis of religion, gender, or caste. Budshah consulted religious and legal
experts but retained ultimate decision-making power.21
20
21
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan Books.(P.134)
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan
Page | 40
Condition of Women.
Religious freedom which prior to Budshah was missing altogether was enjoyed
by individuals and communities, he allowed widows to marry again(no custom of
remarriage of Hindu widows, at all, at that time), writes Colonal Sir Hague. Budshah
allowed sati if Hindu women is willing to do so without any force and exempted
payment of Jazia and return to Hinduism if willing. allowing and encouraging widows
to remarry was a blessing for women who suffered after death of their husbands.22
4.2 Agrarian and Revenue Reforms under Akbar.
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
Agriculture
Zabti System
Dahsala System
Public Welfare Measures
Revenue, Trade, and Commerce
4.3 Comparative Administrative Efficiency
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
Centralization
Institutionalization
Conclusion
Books.(P.122/23)
22
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.260)
Page | 41
Chapter 5. Architecture, Art, and Culture Policies
5.1 Zain-ul-Abdin's architecture, art, and culture.
5.1.1
Art and Architecture (monuments and style)
The artificial lake Zainasara and its adjacent palace, Kulodharna, in Padmapura,
exemplify his commitment to beautification and leisure architecture.1
Major historians like Bakshi Nizam-ud-din Ahmad in Tabakat-e-Akbari,
Jhangir the Mughal Emperor in Tuzuk, and Johanaraja in Zaina Tarangini mention
about the constructional works of Budshah mainly about welfare of people. He himself
was not keen or much interested to construct personal forts. Among the very long list
of constructions few are Zain Lank,Zaina Kadal,Zaina Trang,Zaina bazar,Zaina
Sathu(in Adwan),Zaina Dab,Zaina Geer,Zaina Marg,ZainjaKoot(near Inderkoot),Zaina
nagar(Nowshera
the
Thak/Talak(towards
capital),Zaina
Pattan,Zaina
Kundal(Kamraj),Zaina
Manasbal,Zaina
Pora(Pargana
Adwan)bag-e-Budshahi
wantipora,Sona Lank(Dal Lake),Sopore Bridge,Sultanpore(Kamraj),jamia Masjid in
Shopian
and
Baramullah.
Masjid-i-kadyar(zaina
Kadal)Mazar-i-salatin(royal
graveyard), Nausherah Jamia Masjid, Khanqah-e-charar-e-shareef,Mandir Shankar
Acharya/Zirthi shoor, etc. Budshah was assisted by Uday Band his chief architect.
Johanaraja mentions him as capable and expert and a good painter too along with
constructions he decorated buildings of kingdom.2
1
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan Books.(P.138)
2
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.152)
Page | 42
Construction of Zaina Lank in Wullar Lake.
Jonaraja in his Zaina Rajatarangini gives details of historical construction of
Zaina Lank, an artificial island in Wullar Lake.He mentions Maha Padam as its ancient
name. All earlier rulers avoided this lake out of fear for navigational safety.Unshaken
by the lake’s reputation, the Sultan envisioned reclaiming part of it for public utility.
Budshah Encouraged by counsel from local elders and inspired by a symbolic dream
interpreted as divine approval, he devised a method involving the strategic submersion
of deodar-wood boats filled with stones.This created stable and strong foundation upon
which zain lanka was constructed. Later Persian chroniclers record that the Sultan
discussed the hazardous nature of the lake with the revered Syed Janbaz Wali(R.A)
during an inspection tour. Budshah expressed intention to build resting place for
travellers in distress. During winters water level recedes and fishermen already had
discovered submerged remnant's of past settlements. Budshah during early winter
deployed skilled divers to lakebed to identify solid elevated zone capable of supporting
architecture. Ultimately Zain Lanka not only emerged religious sentiment and
architerctural innovation but also engineering accomplishment.3
During preliminary surveys divers discovered submerged remains of stonebuild hindu temple with golden idols retrievation. He ordered multiple boatloads of
stones to be sinked to make a strong base. After surface was leveled, a mosque and
resting house were build on what becme known as Zaina lanka.The island reportedly
spanned an area between 100 and 200 square yards, depending on the historian’s era.
Jehangir, writing over 150 years later, described its architectural sophistication and
3
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.153)
Page | 43
meditative utility. Originally three-storeyed structure stone ,brick and wood and also
included landscaped gardens and hoisted royal festivals. Only fragments of the
foundation remained by early 20th century.The mosque was no longer visible, and the
inscribed stones had disappeared. What was once a marvel of medieval Kashmiri
engineering had deteriorated into ruins, marked by collapsed masonry, and historical
silence.4
Zaina Geer: A Vision of Agrarian and Architectural Transformation
After the completion of Zaina Lanka while visiting Lolab Budshah observed
barren track from Watlab to Pohru river. He resolved to convert it into fertile region as
residents had impoverished conditions and the region had an arid landscape. At the
initial stage, he commissioned digging cannel from Pohru and initiated village
settlements near it leading to the formation of Zaina Geer. Land witnessed vast square
garden adhorned with fruit trees and floral varities brought from distant lands. He
erected four corners and led nobility to establish residences around it making Zaina
Geer a model of urban planning with ecological renewal with cultural and aesthetic
grandeur. Jonaraja and Shrivara affirm the systematic colonization of this southern
Lolab region, while later chroniclers describe it as a horticultural marvel. Bag-e-Zaina
Geer, Bag-e-Naushahra, Bag-e-Zaina Pore, and Bag-e-Zaina Koot were the gardens
laid by Budshah but with time their traces have largely vanished. He constructed royal
Zeenat mahal along sopore-handwara road remainants of whic include old chinar, a
mosque site and gravesstill bear testimony of past. Budshah used to offer prayers here
on black stone under chinar tree.Decayed persian verses suggest its reconstruction
4
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.158)
Page | 44
during Mughal period as per Mulla zehni but were demolished by local tribals.He
dedicated regions entire produce for supporting scholars and learned men and inscribed
on copper plates instructing successors to collect only 1/7th of agricultural yield and
support infrastructure in zaina geer.
In the absence of king Pandow Chak a tribal chief from trehgam burned large
area of city who was later captured and executed. Neglance from chak dynasty and
Mughals who mainly focused in south Kashmir let to deterioration of the site. During
Durranis(Afghan rule) minimal preservation and under sikhs showing little little
interest in Muslim heritage led to gradual erasure of Zaina Geer’s architectural legacy.
Currently syed pora village within zaina geer holds rich history with Remains of a
blocked canal, old mosques, mulberry trees, engraved stones, and ancient wells,
suggesting the area's past significance. He attempted as in Martanda temple region to
grow sugarcane in Zaina-geer a unsuited crop to Kashmir, the experiment was short
lived like in south Kashmir reflects his inclination towards innovation. Pohru being
main canel its branches irrigated settlements across zaina geer currently over 40 villages
exist while others disappeared with time.5 His works of reconstruction extended across
urban areas, reviving dried canals, damaged religious places, decaying cities(large scale
restoration of Jayapidapura ones a flourishing urban center). he ordered repair of ruined
palace at Lohara and the rebuildment of Suyyapura, destroyed due to fire. Jonaraja notes
about restoration of major gate in capital under supervision of Ruyyabhanda (building
superintendent). He enlarged the structure of Khanqah at Auddinpur originally made
by Sayyid Muhammad Hamadani. Restoration of western part of Jamia Masjid Srinagar
5
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.162 to 170)
Page | 45
is notable which is build by Sikandar having 370 wooden columns. He showed respect
for pluralistic heritage by restoration of Hindu temple's.6
Artificial Islands and Hydraulic Engineering
Rupalank and Sonalank (silver and golden Lanka), for which no remains are
traced, were ordered to be constructed by Budshah in Dal Lake. He commissioned 2
causeways one linking Phag pargana with capital across dal lake and other joining
Suyyapura and Andarkot (endowed a village to mantain it). creation of island (Zaina
Lanka)in Wullar Lake was most ambitious hydraulic project of Budshah. Darood Giri
from Gujarat was engaged to design and reinforce pinewood boats at Zaina Lanka
(approx. 87 by 68.5 meters) for transporting heavy loads. A village at Khuyaham was
endowed for its upkeep. Moorcroft’s visit in 1821 described the ruins of two distinct
structures.7 For his commitment to architectural excellence he initiated construction of
Sheikh Noor-ud-Din Wali's mausoleum with exceptional care, incorporating refined
wooden craftsmanship and decorative art. His teachings had great impact on Budshah
for being benevolent. The structure caught fire during chak rulers and suffered repetated
damage. He build Khanqah-e- faiz Panah for Mir Mohammad Amin Owaisi (disciple
of Syed Hilal of Asham). For a prominent spiritual figure of time Syed Barkhurdar,
Budshah build Khanqah-e-Syed Barkhurdar (Dana Mazar) with a community kitchen
and accommodation for attendants. He build Shrine of Syed Madani (Nawshahra)
originally from madina but settled in Kashmir during sikandars rule. The site is modeled
6
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan Books.(P.142)
7
Zutshi, N. (2012). Sultan Zainul-Abdin of kashmir (2nd ed.). srinagar: gulshan Books.(P.144)
Page | 46
as Prophet’s Mosque as in Medina. This structure is the example of pre Mughal
architecture.8
Development of Sopore Town.
During reign of Budshah.. sopore(originally known as Soyapore after its
founder Soya, the engineer of King Avantivarman)
was transformed into
administrative town which was alo near to Zaina Geer. Town is on the banks of Wullar
and river Jhelum making it as fertile land for Agriculture. It functioned as
administrative centre for Kamraj region. town had all the running departments of
kingdom reflecting its political importance. The town suffered catastrophic fire during
budshahs regin and due to wooden structures all major departments having public
records were destroyed an immegiate reconstruction was ordered by Budshah restoring
its formal legacy. Major centers and towns in kashmir relied on timber architecture with
seismic risks and extreme winters necessitated use of firepots (kangris) making them
vulnerable to recurring fires. This accounts for the absence of remnant structures from
early royal structures. Shrivara records 2 bridges as swimming bridges which connected
sopore with rest of the region after the fire which are described as first swinging bridge's
of region possibly in India.9
Urban Renewal : Case Studies of Baramulla, Inderkot, and Wantipora
He ordered a construction of palace at Baramulla later used for administrative
purposes along with sopore. City of Inderkot(Jia Ped Pore) With Raja Jaip was
8
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.177/78)
9
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.180)
Page | 47
established with mythical assistance on the left Bank of Vitasta river. city ones
flourished with multiple temples but declined after demise of Kota rani(1339 AD).
Shrivara notes that Budshah restored this ruined city by restoring ruined temples with
hoisting of annual festivals of Nag Yatra and Ghan Chakar, inviting Hindu saints and
ascetics. scattered masonry and remnants of earlier structures are still visible. Badshah
created Bag-e-Budshahi in Wantipora (once the capital of Raja Avantivarman of
Varman dynasty) thus rejuvenating Kashmir’s historic urban centres through integrated
architectural patronage.10
Urban Planning : The Case study of Dal Lake and Peripheral Settlements.
Sona Lank in Dal Lake,Zaina Koot,Zaina Bazar,Zainapora were the sections of
urban development planned and executed by Budshah. He constructed a three story
building(sadpori Mahal) at sona lank within dal lake which was used for administrative
purposes and a royal patronage by Budshah. Sona lank destroyed by earthquake was
reconstructed during mughals. In 20th century only few mulberry trees and a chinar
marked its former grandeur. Budshah also established Zaina Koot in marshy terrain in
southeast of kamraj near malhan pore. the town was famous for Artistry. From Zaina
Kadal to Naid Kadal, existed Zaina Bazar an example of urban axis of trade and culture
planned by Budshah. He also laid the foundation of Zainapora town 15 miles south of
Srinagar a place where Sheikh Shams-ud-Din Baghdadi, a mystic settled there with his
disciples, thus Budshah constructed an irrigation cannel Zaina sathu which remains
functional. Shrivara also records that he build Jain poori a town fo brahmin community.
The account
10
Tarikh-e-Hassan also affirms that Zainapora was once a center of
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.181/82)
Page | 48
architectural and horticultural splendor, echoing the aesthetic values of the Shah mir
period.11
Naushahra: Zaina Dab / Rajdhani(capital)
Naushahra—literally "new city" the ruins even today are locally identified as
Rajdhani. A contemporary poet, quoted in the manuscript of Sarkhosh, the site as the
seat of regal glory:
“The king ascended the throne of fortune,
To eternal pleasure he rose,
All celestial splendor he surpassed,
The term Zaina Dab (or Deeb), denoting royal palaces, is used in official records
and both residence and seat of governance were established here. This indicates that
this was the capital city of Budshah. The elobrate description of the capital city is
recorded by Johanaraja and his successor srivara. Jonaraja refers to this new capital as
Shree Jeena Nagari (Zaina Nagar), suggesting that the city, originally named by the
king himself, gradually came to be known as Naushahra. The city extended from
Pardiman Hill to Amrishpore, with its stone architecture reflecting beautifully in the
Zain Gangai brook. Budshah also established religious institutions and provided free
land and constructed dwellings for Brahmins. Shrivara, Jonaraja’s successor, elaborates
on the royal palaces, noting the construction of a dazzling golden-domed palace known
as Shree Jeena Nagari built over 40 lokak units, adjacent to the fifteen-lokak high royal
sanctum. These structures were composed of brick and timber, and the gilded dome
11
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.183/89)
Page | 49
reflected sunlight brilliantly. He also mentions that Budshah himself oversaw planning
indicating his deep knowledge of building techniques. He also states that budshah
relocated capital to Zaina Nagar in last years.12
Other Settlements.
Budshah build a artificial lake with palace(Kalood harn) in Pampore avoiding
arduous travel. He build this during saffron blooming season but both are vanished now
but name still bears as Zaina Trag. when an inebriated elephant terrorized city of Jeena
Tilak, official named hilal bravely slew it therefor Budshah founded a village by his
name as Hilal pore in his honor. Budshah also build Zaina Tilak near Inderkot and city
was painted entirely white which looked like Milk city.shrivara notes that a palace was
build here where celebratory events of music from Kashmir and banaras were held. He
settled villages near wullar and manasbal lake stretched from Baba Shakur-ud-Din’s
shrine to Bundpora. Johanaraja notes that he commissioned a canal to connect water of
Sindh river to Manasbal lake. Bud Kot, Bud Sar, Bud Muqam are other settlements
which give reference of Budshah in north Kashmir as developed by him. Sunan Geeri
and Sidipore in Shreeshwari (Sadakhashteer) near sopore were build by king and he
build two temples named as martand and Amarnath there(not to be misunderstood with
Amarnath Yatra Anantnag and Martand temple both in south). Jeena Kundal and Jeena
Pattan near wullar featuring ornamental creepers, and sultanpore in Kamraj region were
other developments as recorded by Johanaraja were build by Budshah.13
12
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.190)
13
shah, G. h. (2016). A History o Budshah in kashmir- Tarikh-e-Budshahi. srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir, India: Gulshan Books Kashmir.(P.198)
Page | 50
5.1.2
5.1.3
Cultural Patronage (Literature, Translation Works, Scholars,
Paintings)
Expressive and Material Culture (Music, Food, Singing, Clothing,
Crafts)
5.2 Akbar’s architecture, art, and culture.
5.2.1 Art and Architecture (monuments and style)
5.2.2
Cultural Patronage (Literature, Translation Works, Scholars,
(Paintings)
5.2.3
Expressive and Material Culture (Music, Food, Singing, Clothing)
5.3
Comparative Cultural Philosophy
Page | 51
Chapter 6. Conclusion and Findings.
6.1 Major research findings
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
Historical Significance and Impact
Zain Ul Abdin’s influence and impact on Kashmir
Akbar’s Influence and Impact on India.
6.2 Comparative Analysis.
6.3 Scope for Future Research
6.4 Final Thoughts.
Page | 52