Rule 1 -Zeroes between other significant figures
are significant, as, for example in the following
values each of which contains 4 significant figures:
12.03, 35.06, and 4009
Rule 2 - For values less than one, zeroes
immediately to the right of the decimal are not
significant. They merely show the position of the
decimal such as in the following values which
contain three significant figures: 0.00325,
0.000468, and 0.0230
Rule 3 - Zeroes places at the end of decimal
numbers are significant such as: 169.30, 366.00,
and 11.000. There three values all have five
significant figures.
Aim of Surveying
The primary goal of surveying is to create a plan or
map that accurately shows the relative positions of
objects on the Earth's surface. The map is drawn to
a specific scale to represent the actual distances
and locations.
1. Topographical Map
o Used to represent the natural and man-made
features of a country, such as hills, valleys, rivers,
villages, towns, and forests.
2. Cadastral Map
o Shows the boundaries of land properties,
including fields, houses, and other real estate.
These maps are important for land ownership and
legal purposes.
3. Engineering Map
o Displays the details of engineering works like
roads, railways, reservoirs, and irrigation canals.
This type of map is used in planning and
construction projects.
4. Military Map
o Used for defense and strategic planning, showing
roads, railways, and important strategic points in a
country. It helps in determining military positioning
and logistics
PLANE SURVEYING is a process of surveying in
which the portion of the earth
being surveyed is considered a plane. The term is
used to designate survey work
in which the distances or areas involved are small
enough that the curvature of the
earth can be disregarded without significant error.
Geodetic surveying accounts for the Earth's
shape and size. It is used for large areas and
long distances to establish accurate control
points for other surveys. Since stations are
far apart, it requires more precise
instruments and methods than plane
surveying.
Control surveying : To establish horizontal and
vertical positions of control points.
• Land surveying : To determine the boundaries and
areas of parcels of land, also known as property
survey, boundary survey or cadastral survey.
• Topographic survey : To prepare a plan/ map of a
region which includes natural as well as and manmade features including elevation.
• Engineering survey : To collect requisite data for
planning, design and execution of engineering
projects
Reconnaissance survey : To explore site conditions
and availability of
infrastructures.
• Preliminary survey : To collect adequate data to
prepare plan/map of area to
be used for planning and design.
• Location survey : To set out work on the ground
for actual
construction/execution of the project.
1. Route Survey
o This survey is used for planning, designing, and
setting out routes for highways, railways, canals,
pipelines, and other long, continuous projects
2. Construction Survey
o Conducted after the design is finalized, this
survey helps in marking the exact locations of
points, lines, and elevations needed for
construction.
3. Astronomic Survey
o Used to determine exact locations (latitude and
longitude) and directions (azimuth) by observing
celestial bodies like the sun and stars.
4. Mine Survey
o Specialized surveying used in both surface
(opencast) and underground mining to map
tunnels, measure volumes, and ensure safety
1. Chief of Party
o The leader responsible for the overall direction,
supervision, and operations of the survey team.
They
manage the logistical and technical needs of the
project and solve any field-related problems.
2. Assistant Chief of Party
o Helps the Chief of Party complete the tasks
assigned to the survey team. They provide support
and may take over the leadership in the Chief’s
absence.
3. Instrumentman
o The person responsible for setting up, leveling,
and
operating survey instruments like the transit,
engineer’s level, theodolite, sextant, and plane
table.
4. Technician
o Responsible for the use and operation of
electronic survey instruments, such as GPS, total
stations, and other advanced tools required in field
work
ERROR is defined as the difference between the
true
value and the measured value of a quantity.
inherent in all measurements and result from
sources which cannot be avoided.
Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements that
occur because some aspect of a surveying
operation is performed by the surveyor with
carelessness,
inattention, poor judgment.
Systematic Error - This type of error is one that will
always have the same sign and magnitude as long
as field conditions remain constant and unchanged.
Accidental Errors - These are errors are purely
accidental in character. The occurrence of
such errors are matters of chance as they are likely
to be positive or negative, and may tend in part to
compensate or average out according to law of
probability.
Instrumental Errors - These errors are due to
imperfections in the instruments used, either
from faults in their construction of from improper
adjustments between the different parts
prior to their used.
• Natural Errors - These errors are caused by
variations in the phenomena of natures such
as changes in magnetic declination, temperature,
humidity, wind, refraction, gravity, and curvature of
the earth. Natural errors are beyond the control of
man.
• Personal Errors - These errors arise principally
from limitations of the senses of sight, touch and
hearing of the human observer which are likely to
be erroneous or inaccurate.
Accuracy indicated how close a given
measurement is to the absolute or true value of the
quantity measured. It implies the closeness
between related measurements and their
expectations.
Precision refers to the degree of refinement and
consistency with which any physical
measurement is made. It is portrayed by the
closeness to one another of a set of repeated
measurements of a quantity