Socialist Thought: A Documentary History —
Chapter IX: Contemporary Socialism (Gramsci,
Crosland) — Detailed Study Guide
This document is a detailed explanatory companion to Chapter IX of Albert Fried and Ronald Sanders’
*Socialist Thought: A Documentary History*. This final chapter turns from the era of revolution and
state-building to the problem of socialism in the advanced capitalist world of the twentieth century. It
focuses especially on Antonio Gramsci and C. A. R. Crosland, two thinkers who represent different but
related attempts to rethink socialist strategy in societies where capitalism has proven more stable and
adaptable than earlier Marxists expected.
1. The New Situation of Twentieth-Century Capitalism
The editors begin by stressing that by the mid-twentieth century the historical situation facing socialists
is very different from that of Marx’s time or even from that of the Russian Revolution. In many Western
countries, capitalism has not collapsed under the weight of its contradictions. Instead, it has shown a
capacity to reform itself through welfare policies, mass democracy, trade unions, and state intervention
in the economy. This does not mean that exploitation, inequality, or class conflict have disappeared.
But it does mean that the old expectation of an imminent revolutionary breakdown is no longer
convincing for many socialists. The question therefore becomes: how can socialism be pursued in
societies where capitalism is relatively stable, where democratic institutions exist, and where large
parts of the working class are integrated into the existing order?
2. Gramsci: Hegemony, Culture, and the War of
Position
Antonio Gramsci represents one of the most original Marxist responses to this new situation. Writing
under the conditions of imprisonment in Fascist Italy, Gramsci reflects on why revolutionary movements
have failed in Western Europe and why the ruling classes have been able to maintain their power
despite economic crises and social conflicts. His key concept is hegemony. Gramsci argues that ruling
classes do not govern by force alone. They also secure the consent of subordinate classes by shaping
culture, common sense, institutions, and everyday beliefs. Schools, churches, the media, and political
parties all play a role in creating a worldview that makes the existing social order appear natural,
inevitable, or beneficial.
From this perspective, political struggle cannot be reduced to a single insurrectionary moment. In
Western societies with strong civil institutions, power is deeply entrenched in culture and social life.
Gramsci therefore distinguishes between a “war of maneuver,” the direct assault on state power
characteristic of revolutionary crises, and a “war of position,” the long-term struggle to build influence,
credibility, and alternative values within civil society. For Gramsci, socialism requires the creation of a
new “historical bloc”: an alliance of social forces united not only by economic interests but also by a
shared cultural and moral vision. Intellectuals, in this framework, play a crucial role—not as detached
elites, but as “organic intellectuals” rooted in social classes and movements, helping to articulate and
organize their experience and aspirations.
3. Gramsci and the Reinterpretation of Marxism
The editors emphasize that Gramsci does not abandon Marxism; he reinterprets it. He remains
committed to the analysis of class and to the goal of socialist transformation, but he broadens the
understanding of power. Economic relations remain fundamental, but they do not mechanically
determine politics and culture. Instead, politics and culture become crucial terrains of struggle in their
own right. This means that socialist strategy must include not only economic demands and party
organization, but also battles over education, culture, language, and everyday “common sense.” The
revolution, in Gramsci’s perspective, is not a single event but a prolonged process of building
counter-hegemonic institutions and values within society.
4. Crosland: Democratic Socialism and the Mixed
Economy
C. A. R. Crosland represents a different, more explicitly reformist response to the same historical
conditions. Writing in post-war Britain, Crosland argues that capitalism has been fundamentally
transformed by the growth of welfare states, public services, progressive taxation, and state economic
management. The old model of laissez-faire capitalism, he claims, no longer describes the real
structure of advanced industrial societies. From this diagnosis, Crosland draws a strategic conclusion:
socialism should no longer be defined primarily by the complete abolition of private property or total
nationalization of industry. Instead, it should focus on achieving greater equality, social security, and
quality of life through democratic means. Education, healthcare, housing, and income redistribution
become central goals of socialist policy.
Crosland insists that these goals can and should be pursued within the framework of parliamentary
democracy. For him, socialism is not a sudden revolutionary rupture but a gradual process of reform
and improvement. He therefore rejects both the revolutionary model associated with classical Marxism
and the authoritarian model associated with Stalinism. His vision is of a pluralist, democratic society
with a mixed economy and strong social protections.
5. Reform, Revolution, and the Future of Socialism
By placing Gramsci and Crosland side by side, the editors highlight two different but complementary
ways of rethinking socialism in the twentieth century. Gramsci emphasizes the depth and complexity of
power in modern societies and the need for long-term cultural and ideological struggle. Crosland
emphasizes the possibilities of democratic reform and the practical achievements of welfare-state
policies. Both perspectives challenge the older expectation of an inevitable revolutionary collapse of
capitalism. They suggest instead that socialism must adapt to new historical conditions, either by
transforming society through cultural and political struggle within civil society or by using democratic
institutions to reshape economic and social priorities.
6. Historical Significance of Contemporary Socialism
In concluding the chapter, the editors assess the broader meaning of these developments.
Twentieth-century socialism is no longer defined by a single strategy or doctrine. It becomes a field of
debate between different paths: revolutionary and reformist, cultural and economic, parliamentary and
extra-parliamentary. What unites these diverse approaches is the continued concern with inequality,
power, and social justice. Even where capitalism has been partially tamed by reforms, the fundamental
questions raised by earlier socialist thinkers—about exploitation, domination, and human
freedom—remain alive. Gramsci and Crosland represent two influential attempts to answer these
questions under modern conditions.
Chapter IX thus brings the book’s historical narrative into the contemporary world. It shows how
socialist thought does not end with Marx, Lenin, or the Russian Revolution, but continues to evolve in
response to new social realities. By examining both Gramsci’s theory of hegemony and Crosland’s
democratic socialism, the chapter illustrates the enduring flexibility and internal diversity of the socialist
tradition, as well as the ongoing debate over how a more equal and humane society can be achieved in
practice.